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中西方审美文化差异

中西方审美文化差异
中西方审美文化差异

Aesthetic and cultural differences between Chinese and Western

-—— A Comparative Study on Face Perception and Pragmatic Strategies in Chinese and Western Cultures

中西方审美文化差异

——中西方文化中的面子观及语用策略对比研究

Contents

Acknowledgement……………………………………………….I

Abstrac t (English) (Ⅱ)

Abstract (Chinese) (Ⅲ)

Contents (Ⅳ)

1. Introduction (6)

1.1 Necessity and Significance of the Study (6)

1.2 Literature Review (7)

1.3 Purpose of the Study (8)

2. The Difference of Face perception and Pragmatic Strategies in Chinese and Western cultures (8)

2.1 Face in Chinese Culture (9)

2. 2 Face in Western Cultures (11)

2.3Pragmatic Strat egies in Chinese and Western cultures (12)

3. Analyze the Factors of Difference (14)

3.1 Confucianism and Christianity ......................... .. (14)

3.2 Individualism and Collectivism......................... .. (15)

3.3 Deductive and Inductive (17)

5. Conclusion (18)

References (19)

Acknowledgements

Through the process of writing this paper, I got a lot of help from others. Here I want to express my sincere thanks to them.

First and foremost, my sincere gratitude goes to my respected supervisor, Prof. Ye Jing who has helped me throughout the process of writing this thesis with her timely advice and meticulous criticisms, overall direction and suggested revisions.

Secondly I would like to thank all the teachers in our department, from whom we got to know how to do, how to learn and how to be. Through their earnest teaching of 4 years, I have acquired solid knowledge of English history and culture, and skills to learn more efficiently and independently. Meanwhile, I have learned how to behave myself as college student. I feel grateful to them all.

Finally, I wish to give special thanks to all my classmates and friends, whose support has encouraged me to overcome many difficulties. Without their love and assistance, the accomplishment of this thesis would have been impossible.

摘要

面子观存在于人类的交往之中,但不同文化背景下对面子观的理解也有很多不同之处。如今,面子和面子功夫在跨文化交际中被广泛应用,同时也发挥着非常重要的作用,但是不同的文化背景对面子的理解应用却不尽相同。本文将在分析中国传统文化和西方个人主义的基础上来分析中西方的面子观。通过对比分析,本文将揭示中西文化中面子观及语用策略的差异。同时,本文也试图从文化根源上找出中西文化相互融合,相互理解的途径,从而使人们能更好的进行交流,从中受益。对比分析中西方面子观的差异对于避免冲突和误解是有着实际意义的。

本文将从文化背景、价值观念和思维方式的差异来对比分析中西方面子观及其语用策略的差异。关键词:面子观;个人主义;集体主义;语用策略

Abstract

Face exists in all human communication, but there are also many differences of face perception in different cultures. Moreover, face and facework have been employed in intercultural communication widely, playing very important roles in intercultural communication, while the using style and principles vary a lot according to different

culture backgrounds. The present thesis analyzes the concept of "face" under Chinese traditional culture and that in the individual-oriented western cultures.It is very useful to explore the differences of face perception and language strategies in Chinese and Western cultures in order to avoid conflicts and misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.

On the basis of the comparative analysis of the different cultures, different value systems and different thought patterns between Chinese and western cultures, this thesis attempts to make a thorough comparative study on the difference of face perception and pragmatic strategies in Chinese and western culture, with the hope that it will be beneficial for cross-cultural communication.

Key words: face; individualism; collectivism; pragmatic strategies

1. Introduction

1.1 Necessity and Significance of the Study

Nowadays, as the world becomes more interdependent, cross-cultural communication becomes much more frequent. However, in cross-cultural communication, people share less knowledge of cultural background, and misunderstandings and conflicts often occur. Because people from different cultures view the world through different lenses attach different meaning to particular events and behaviors, and have different standards for their judgments in given situations. The nature of cross-cultural is complex, and the analysis of the different face perception and pragmatic strategies in different cultures is necessary to help people understand each other and benefit their communication.

“There is no faceless communication; saving face is the strongest motive in the world” (Scollon & Scollon, 2000).This sentence highlights the importance of studying face. When we communicate with westerners, it's important for us to know their face needs. Face is central to intercultural communication. Therefore, the research on different face concepts in different cultures can reduce the intercultural misunderstandings and promote more effective and smooth communication between different cultures.

Generally speaking, whenever there is communication, face is usually involved as an ingredient as well as means for communication. It has a lot to do with whether a verbal interaction succeeds or not. On the other hand, in daily life, more often than not, people start a communication which results just from the want of obtaining his own face, giving others face, or even damaging the face of himself or the other part. Therefore, the choosing of pragmatic strategies is very important and the comparison of pragmatic strategies in different cultures is also practical and meaningful. We choose different pragmatic strategies in different situations. And people from different cultures use different pragmatic strategies to save his face and maintain others' face. To understand these differences and explore the reasons for these differences is helpful for

cross-cultural communication.

Great importance is attached to the face and face saving strategies are both adapted in china and the western countries. Many Chinese and western scholars have made many contributions to the field and conducted many valuable researches. As two outstanding scholars in the area, Brown and Levinson divided face into two kinds: negative face and positive face. They also put forward two politeness strategies: positive politeness strategy and negative politeness strategies. As the polite speech is used to save face, certain face saving strategies are chosen in accordance to principle of Leech or the politeness tactics of Guyueguo.

Based on the former scholars' researches, this thesis attempts to make a comparison of face perception and pragmatic strategies between Chinese and western cultures through the analysis of their different cultures, value systems and thought patterns.

1.2 Literature Review

This thesis attempts to make an analysis of the difference of face perception and pragmatic strategies between Chinese and western cultures from the viewpoint of cultural impacts by the application of some relevant theories. Most of the theories in this field connect with self, politeness principles, culture and so on. Hu Hsien-chin (1944) developed the notion of face from the two terms “lian” and “mianzi”. “Mianzi” is “a reputation achieved through getting on in life through success and ostent ation” and it concerns the projection and the claiming of public image, while “lian” is an internalized moral face that everyone is entitled to by virtue and refers to “the respect of the group for a man with good moral reputation” and includes “the loss o f which makes it impossible for him or her to function properly within the community” (Hu, 1944). Based on Chinese culture, Gu (1990) claimed that Chinese concepts about “face” and politeness are different from western culture. In western culture, “face” i s regarded as

self-image and in China “face” is regarded as public-image. To be polite, Leech thinks that you should follow “Politeness Principle”. However, Leech's politeness principles seldom consider the culture difference and stand for the western culture. So it does not match the Chinese concept of limao. According to American sociologist Erving Goffman (1955), the term face may be defined as the positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact, and face is a sacred thing for every human being, an essential factor communication all have to pay attention to; face wants are reciprocal, i.e., one wants his face cared for, he should care for other people's face. Brown and Levinson (1987) expanded Gofman's theory of face in their politeness theory, which contains three basic notions: face, face threatening acts (FTAs) and politeness strategies. Brown and Levinson (1987) define face as “the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself” and it consists of two related aspects: negative face and positive face. Negative face means non-imposition, and positive face includes the desire to be liked and admired. Brown and Levinson's theory can be further developed and the most significant research further along this line is Ron Scollon and Suzanne Wong Scollon's (2000) work on face system in communication in which they proposed the influence of cultural elements and self identity on facework. Scollon and Scollon developed the politeness system. They observe three politeness systems: the deference politeness system, the solidarity politeness system and the hierarchical politeness system.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

With the development of china, the relation between china and west becomes much closer in politics, economy as well as cultures. It is undoubted that the politeness will play an important role in this regard. Therefore the comparative study of face perception and pragmatic strategies between Chinese and western cultures are practical and meaningful in cross-cultural communication. This thesis attempts to help people cultivate a positive attitude to different cultures in cross-cultural communication and benefit mutual understanding through the analysis of the factors for the difference of face concepts and pragmatic strategies between Chinese and western cultures.

2. The Difference of Face perception and Pragmatic Strategies in Chinese and Western cultures

Face is a universal phenomenon: everyone has the same fundamental face concerns. However, culture can affect the relative sensitivity of different aspects of people's face. And the perception of face is closely related with the social life both in Chinese and western cultures. The notion of face has been used as a metaphor for individual qualities or abstract entities such as honor, respect, esteem, the self, etc. for a very long time. However there are many differences existing in the concepts of face as well as pragmatic strategies in Chinese and western cultures.

2.1 Face in Chinese Culture

Face idiomatically means dignity and prestige in English. However, the Chinese concept of face has a lot of complex and special characteristics under the influence of traditional culture. In China, face has to do with the image or credibility of the person you are dealing with. You should never insult, embarrass, shame, yell at or otherwise demean a person. If you do, they will lose face. “There are basically four notions underlying the Chinese conception of limao: respectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth, and refinement. …Respectfulness' is self's positive appreciation or admiration of other concerning the latter's face, social status, and so on. …Modesty' can be seen as another way of saying …self-denigration'. …Attitude wa rmth' is self's demonstration of kindness, consideration, and hospitality to other. Finally, …refinement' refers to self's behavior to other which meets certain standards.” (Gu, 1990)

The Chinese concept of face includes four major characteristics: relational, communal/social, hierarchical and moral. First of all, face is conceptualized as relational in Chinese culture. Ting-Toomey (1988) identifies face-giving, other-directed face or face honoring as a major component of the collectivist culture which should be embraced as the relational part of face-negotiation model. Secondly, the Chinese concept of face is communal/social. According to Hu (1944), face is “public censure”, or a communal check against any deviation from or violation against the well-rounded norms or traditions of the homogeneous community. Thus, fear of losing face indicates the awareness of “the force of social sanctions”. As is sound to Chinese, when put in a community or certain social environment, we intend to know how others may perceive us. We are great influenced by what others do and say. Unlike that in the western culture, Chinese face emphasizes not the individual wants or desires, but the attitudes and judgments of the community. Chinese are enthusiastic about the self-image. Our behaviors and attitudes are closely related to the “image” we project to the community that we are involved in. Thirdly, the Chinese concept of face is inherently hierarchical. The origin of the Chinese concepts of face can be traced to the Confucian which stressed the hierarchical nature of the society. Normally, varying degrees of concern about face of members of the society fit varying degrees of their familial and social significance in the two hierarchies. Scollon & Scollon (2000) express a similar point. They argue that the concept of hierarchy is deeply embedded in Chinese of face. Fourthly, the Chinese concept of face is deeply moral. Hu (1944) defines face as “the respect of the group for a man with a good moral reputation”, and the loss of face as “a condemnation by the group for immoral or socially disagreeable behavior”. According to Hu, Chinese face owns two aspects: lian and mianzi. Lian is the confidence of society in a person's moral character, while mianzi represents social perceptions of a person's prestige. For a person to maintain face is important with Chinese social relations because face translates into power and influence and affects goodwill. A loss of lian would result in a loss of trust within a social network, while a loss of mianzi would likely result in a loss of authority.

In China, face can be “granted” and “lost” and “fought for” and “presented as a gift”. Here we have arrived at the most curious point of Chinese social psychology. Abstract and intangible, it is yet the most delicate standard by which Chinese social intercourse is regulated. That was humorously described by Lin Yutang (2000) in his book My Country and My People, “Face cannot be translated or defined. It is like honor and is not honor. It cannot be purchased with money, and gives a man or woman a material pride. It is hollow and is what men fight for and what many women die for. It is invisible and yet by definition exists by being shown to the public. It exists in the ether and yet can be heard, and sounds eminently respectable and solid. It is amenable, not to reason but to social convention. It protracts lawsuits, break up family fortunes, causes murders and suicides, and yet it often makes a man out of a renegade who has been insulted by his fellow townsmen, and it is prized above all earthly possession. It is more powerful than fate and favor, and more respected than the constitution. It often decides a military victory or defeat, and can demolish a whole government ministry. It is that hollow thing which men in China live by. (pp. 195-196)

The Chinese people give face to each other and save face for their own mainly by the following four ways, namely, self-degrading and others-dignifying, achieving success, receiving other's direct or indirect apology, and making others lose face so as to redeem one's own face. To most Chinese, showing respect and granting face to others is in return a good way to maintain his own face and decency. There are abundant words and phrases to express modesty and respect in the Chinese language, such as晚辈、寒舍、拙见、您、阁下、贵姓、令尊,etc., Which are still used in Chinese social intercourse up till now, and is particularly used on formal occasions. There is an old Chinese saying goes like this: “He who succeeds is as glorious as an emperor; while he who fails is as shameful as a prisoner.” Therefore, man can gain his face through his success. Once he succeeds, he can reach the high social status with a good reputation or wealth, and that may assure him to gain and maintain his face. Receiving other's direct or indirect apology is also helpful to save face, because it shows the respect to each other and maintains the harmony. Sometimes, one can also save face by making others lose face, because that can redeem his own face. Anyway, face is built up through initial high position, wealth, power, ability, through cleverly establishing social ties to a number of prominent people, as well as through avoidance of acts that would cause unfavorable comment. (Hsien-chin Hu, 1944)

2. 2 Face in Western Cultures

The perception of face in western cultures is greatly affected by individualism. In the western world, the verbal communication is much more direct and there is very little concern or need for nonverbal cues in order for people to understand each other. In western societies, individual rights place blind duty to one's family, clan, ethnic group o nation, and people generally try to say what they mean and mean what they say. The western societies are on the whole guided by the idea of equality, which gave rise to the

independence and parallelism among interpersonal relationships. To put it in a more concrete way, everyone strives for success, seeks for self-realization, and take individual rights and privacy seriously. In these societies, it is individual, personal guilt that serves as a moral compass. If one commits a social blunder as an adult, in most cases, there is no group shame involved, but only personal embarrassment, and he has a desire to correct the wrong with a sincere apology. Therefore, conflicts are regarded as a natural part of life and they are simply dealt with and then people move on. Loss of face in the west only slightly undermines one's individual social worth. The westerners appear to be more direct than Chinese in gaining face and saving face. According to Brown and Levinson (1987), face consists of two related aspects: negative face and positive face. Positive face is the positive consistent self-image or personality claimed by interactants, while negative face is the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction, i.e. to freedom of action and freedom from imposition. The western face culture give priority to the negative face, while the Chinese face culture attaches importance to the positive face; the negative face in the western culture does not exist in Chinese culture, while the moral factor contained in Chinese face culture does not exist in western cultures. Generally speaking, the positive face and negative face play a important role in the communication of the westerners. On the one hand, they want their counterparts to pay great attention to what they have remarked; on the other hand, however, independence suggests that people do not expect too much interruption from their counterparts. There are many ways to give face to others by showing involvement, such as notice or attend to the hearer, support for or sympathy with the hearer, affirm the in-group membership with the hearer, express confidence or trust, emphasize the common interest and acknowledge the needs of the hearer and show consideration of it. All of these are beneficial for maintaining the positive face. Contrary to the involvement aspect of face, there is the independence aspect of face, which is also called negative face or deference face, emphasizing the individuality of the participants. The key to independence of face is to grant freedom of choice to the hearer. However, both positive face and negative face can be threatened. Positive face is threatened when the speaker or hearer does not care about their partner's feelings, wants, or does not want what the other wants, i.e., expressions of disapproval, interrupting and apologies. Negative face is threatened when an individual does not avoid or intend to avoid the obstruction of their interlocutor's freedom of

action.

2. 3 Pragmatic Strategies in Chinese and Western cultures

The pragmatic strategies to maintain and save face are different in Chinese and western cultures. These differences can be founded in many aspects of daily communication, including addressing, greeting, parting, compliments, apologies, thanks, etc. In the following, we will analyze some cultural difference between Chinese and westerners.

Firstly, addressing. In English-speaking countries, people have a tendency to follow the symmetrical addressing. Although they are different in age and status, often, especially in informal situations, they can address the other person directly, namely, by their first name, without causing offence to him or her. This demonstrates the sense of intimacy and the conception of equality. For example, in an English family, sisters and brothers of the same age generation generally call each other by name. It is also common to note that the Chinese way of addressing by usi ng a person?s rank. “We Chinese routinely use many position linked or occupation linked titles to address people”(Zhang, 2004); we may hear “刘校长” “陈老师” etc. In the west, people seldom call others as “Principle Liu” and “Teacher Li”. That reveals the Chines e face is closely related with one's social position, while the western face shows involvement with others. It is the hierarchic sense that keeps a fundamental and pervasive impact on the Chinese culture. (Hu Wenzhong, 1991).

Secondly, greeting and parting. When people meet acquaintances or friends, they usually greet each other. The purpose of greeting is to establish or maintain social contact. So some formulaic expressions are often used, but such formulaic expressions often cause conflict because of the great cultural difference between Chinese and westerners. In English, people often employ the following expression to greet each other “Good morning/evening/afternoon.” “Nice day, isn't it?” “How is everything going?” While in China, we always say “吃了吗?” “去哪啊?” “干什么去啊?” in order to show the consideration. Parting is also quite different between Chinese and western cultures. In west, during the closing phase of an encounter, reasons for terminating the encounter are presented from “I” aspect. Typical com ments are associated with expression of apology, such as “I am afraid I must be off, I have to relieve the baby-sitter” etc. Western people believe that to be willing to visit and converse with someone is to have respect for him, and to terminate the visiting is not of one's own free will but because of some other arrangements, therefore, they always try to make their leaving sound reluctant by finding some reasons and apologize for it to make the leaving acceptable for both parties. In Chinese society, rea sons for parting is expressed from a “you” perspective. Such expression include: “你忙吧,我就不多打扰了。” “你一定累了,早点休息,我先告辞了。” These words show concern for the host, and to preserve face for others.

Thirdly, compliments and response. Appropriate compliments can serve as effective means in intercultural communication. However, western and Chinese cultures are at polar opposites about compliment. For example, an western hostess, if she is complimented for her cooking skill, she is likely to say, “Thank you. I am so g lad that you like it.” In contrast, a Chinese hostess will instead apologize profusely for giving you nothing even slightly edible and for not showing you enough honor by providing proper dishes. That is because Chinese take pride in modesty and use indirectness to show their modesty.

Fourthly, apologies and responses. As to how to offer apologies, both western and Chinese people may say “I am sorry…” or “I apologize for…” etc. However, with the influence of “li”, Chinese would like to apologize for the crowded state of their dwellings and for small number of dishes, although the room is big enough and there are many

dishes. That quite confuses westerners. Besides, the ways to respond to apologies are different, too. For westerners, they may respond with “That's all right”, while for Chinese, they may say, “It doesn't matter”, which is a common pattern in Chinese to respond to apologies.

Fifthly, thanks and responses. Cultural differences also exist between Chinese and western in how to express thanks and responses. In fact, “Thank you” is uttered in English for more than acknowledging favor or gratitude, and it is often a means to show politeness. It is used more widely by westerners for minor favor like borrowing a pencil. For westerners, each person is an equal individual, whether he is a family member or not. In Chinese, “谢谢” is not frequently used between intimate friends and family members, because it may imply a certain distance between the addresser and the addressee. Westerners may respond to “Thank you” by saying: You are welcome/my pleasure/Not at all. While Chinese people may say, “这是我应该做的”.

That?s because Chinese culture stresses personal obligation to the group.

Sixthly, asking personal affairs. Chinese people intend to ask others' name, age, martial status, wages and belief to show their concern, while the westerners regard their privacy importantly. So when we communicate with the westerners, we should avoid asking their private information.

3. Analyze the Factors of Difference

3. 1 Confucianism and Christianity

One of the factors for the cultural differences between China and the West is the cultural background. Chinese culture is deeply affected by Confucianism, especially “ren” and “li”, which lie at the very core of Confucianism. If we look at these two concepts in terms of ends and means, we can say that “ren” serves as the goal of life, while Li serves as the norms and means for achieving the acceptable ends of social life. “Ren” advocates reciprocity, the reciprocity of love or benevolence, however, is not unlimited. It is based on the kinship relationships in the patriarchal Chinese society or rather it is a symbol of patriarch. As for “li”, as we all know, China is known as “the country of courtesy, li plays an important role i n Chinese culture. On the one hand, “li” is a social and political norm, and even functions as an ethical and moral criterion. It is codified and treated as an

all-embracing system of norms; on the other hand, “li” is the basic link that maintains all the relations among the social members, providing everyone with a certain role and a certain place in a given community. “Li” emphasizes the collective quality in the nature of individual's life and behavior, so the meaning of face should be viewed in relation to the gain or loss of the social status of group, not just of the individual. In short, the Chinese people, no matter what social position, can all best be characterized by the spirit of “li”. “Ren” and “li” in fact is a system of moral codes in the Chin ese contest

predisposing a society in which relationship is complementary, asymmetrical and reciprocally obligatory.

Different from China, Christianity plays an important role in the West(Zheng,1994). The English speaking countries are generally considered as Christian countries where many people believe in Christianity. Christianity is the religion based on the life and teaching of Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity. According to the doctrine of Christianity, the Trinity is the union of the three forms of God, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Jesus Christ is the son of the God. And the holy book of Christianity is the Bible, which consists of the Old Testament and the New Testament. Though, the power of the church cannot compare with the past time, it still influences many aspects of people's daily life. Of the thousands of directives Jesus carried to the world, let us select a few of those that have most shaped the Christian tradition and as such demonstrate the link between religion, perception and behavior. First, Christian believe strongly in organized worship as a means of proclaiming God's message. In the East, one's spiritual life is conducted in solitude; in the West, God's “message” is shared with others. Second, Jesus preached a system of ethics that has endured for two thousands years. Words and phrases such as “commandments”, “right” and “wrong”, “good” and “evil”, “morals” and “ethics” are central to Christianity. Third, the Western concept of the importance of the individual can be linked partially to Christianity. The Christian tradition begins with the assumption that the world is real and meaningful, because God created it. Human beings are significant because God created them in his image. God has a special relationship with each person in that God sees and hears, rewards and punishes. Each person is important to him. In a culture that values individualism, Christianity is perhaps the perfect religion. Finally, a strong message in Christianity is courage. A careful reading of the life of Jesus reveals a man who would not be intimidated by his opponents. His strength and courage are traits that all Christians are reminded of repeatedly.

3. 2 Individualism and Collectivism

In western culture, high value is placed on individualism while in Chinese society; the conceptualization of face is not an individual aspect of face but a public, communal image, which is determined by the participation of others (Gu, 1990). In the west, given name comes first, only thereafter is family surname added, while in China, where family is the basic unit of the social structure, family surname comes first and only thereafter comes the given name. Individual identity, individual rights, individual needs are emphasized over “we” identity and the interest of the grou p or in-group, and obligations and commitment (Jia, 1997). According to Samovar, Porter and Stefani(1995), in its broad sense, individualism is the doctrine that an individual's interest ought to be the most important, and that all values, rights and duties originate in individuals. Individualism holds that the individual is the primary unit of reality and the ultimate standard of value. This view does not deny that societies exist or that people benefit from living in them, but it sees society as a collection of individuals, not something over

and above them. On the other hand, collectivism holds that the group---the nation, the community, the proletariat, the race, etc. ---is the primary unit of reality and the ultimate standard of value. This view does not deny the reality of the individual. But ultimately, collectivism holds that one's identity is determined by the groups one interacts with, that one's identity is constituted essentially of relationships with others.

In western culture which tends toward individualism, an “I” consciousness prevails: competition rather than cooperation is encouraged; personal goals take precedence over group goals; people tend not to be emotionally dependent on organizations and institutions; and every individual has the right to his or her private property, thoughts, and opinions. Individualism is the core and basis of all the values in western culture. This culture stresses individual initiative and achievement, and they value direct explicit communication and individual decision making. It is quite a complicated notion, which includes the freedom and the independence of action of the man (He,1995).

In Chinese culture, collectivism is the backbone and a “we” consciousness prevails instead of an “I” orientation. In collect ive cultures identity is based on the social system; the individual is emotionally dependent on families, institutions and affiliations; and individuals trust group decisions. Chinese people lay great importance on “we” identity, the group's interests, obligations and commitment. They give precedence to group goals over their personal goals. It is generally believed that Chinese tend to be more aware of the connections they have as members of their social groups, and therefore, they are apt to be more conscious of the consequences of their actions on their members of their groups. Just as the old saying goes, “At home one relies on one's parents and outside on one's friends”. And in communication behavior, Chinese are likely to show traits such as indirect communication, saving face, concern for others, group cooperation, group decision-making, etc. The maintenance of ever-lasting relationship based on good feelings between self and others has become common practice among Chinese people and the achievement of harmony in interactions is regarded as the ultimate goal (Hu, 1999).

3. 3 Deductive and Inductive

Deductive pattern is to get the topic out onto the conversational floor right away so that you know what you are discussing, and details can then be worked out deductively as they needed. While the Inductive patterns place the minor points of the arguments first and then derive the main points as a conclusion from those arguments.

The Chinese patterns of thought tend to be inductive, concrete, rounded. We like to first give the background, reasons to get the readers' or listeners' sympathy, understanding, attention. So our textual structure tends to be like: Because A, and because B, and because C, Therefore/ So D (Scollon, 2000). That is because what we concern most is the politeness, and we try our best to not hurt others' face by using indirect language in order to maintain the harmony. On the contrary, westerners start straight with the main

point. They put the most important at the beginning to get the readers' or listeners' attention and consideration. They tend to put effect at the beginning, then reasons (effect - cause). It often occurs that in a business negotiation, a Chinese merchant stresses, first of all, their good relationship in the past, then the happy cooperation in the future and some other light topics before the discussion of the most crucial and debatable details. It is the Chinese convention to maintain and integrate a harmonious relationship with others by weakening the disagreeable arguments, if unavoidable, to the least extent, while the English participants are apt to put the greatest concern at the beginning, aiming at the settlements so urgently that they feel confused or even discontented with those “irrelevant” topics and the Chi nese roundabout way of thinking. (Scollon, 2000)

The two patterns form strong contrast with each other and this contrast can easily lead to confusion about what is the topic under discussion. If two or more people in a conversation approach the conversation with different assumptions about which pattern will be used, they are likely to have problems of misinterpretation and lead to misunderstandings.

4.Conclusion

Face perception is a polite phenomenon and it is an inalienable part of language activity. Face-saving theory (FST) reflects western values based on individualism, but Chinese face perception related to Chinese values-collectivism is connected closely with honor and social position. It is very useful to explore the differences of face perception and language strategies in Chinese and Western cultures in order to avoid pragmatic failure in cross-cultural communication. The research makes a thorough analysis of the difference of face perception and pragmatic strategies in Chinese and western cultures by offering examples and analyzing the main factors which cause the difference. The western culture values more individualism and initiative, and prefers deductive and straight patterns in communication. In contrast, in Chinese culture, people are more collective-oriented, more inductive in thought patterns, more conscious of their social value and relationship with others, and put more emphasis on maintaining harmony and saving face. The differences derived from cultural impacts in communicative acts, cause inability to convey or understand the original meaning, and bring about barriers, confusion or misunderstanding. In our times, intercultural understanding becomes increasingly important for the future of human beings. Jia (2003) states that difference is but a feeling or an imagery an individual holds about himself or others; we are separated by force; thus we need the common category that can make oneself understood or accepted in order to have a good understanding of the difference. In conclusion, cultural differences and similarities coexist, each of which continues an inseparable part in intercultural understanding. However, for people from different cultures, misunderstandings are inevitable. Slight may the difference be, troubles take place. “Communi cation is the process in which one party gives the message that is

received by the other party” (Zhang, 2004). When we communicate with people of different cultural backgrounds, we will face many politeness problems. In order to avoid conflicts and misunderstandings, we should try our best to learn and understand the difference between cultures. This thesis is in order to benefit the mutual understanding of people from different cultures and smooth the cross-cultural communication through the comparative study on face perception and pragmatic strategies in Chinese and western cultures.

References

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浅谈中西方文化差异_英文_

综 合 191 # 浅谈中西方文化差异 文/黄文娟 摘 要:中西方文化差异导致了中西方交流中的误解,引起了很多不便。本文针对日常生活中中西方文化交流中的典型现象如婚姻家庭,餐厅礼仪和日常招呼等进行分析,阐述了这些文化现象后所隐藏的文化内涵和其所植根的文化根基,从个人主义和集体主义,平等概念和等级观念,自我中心和牺牲精神等方面做出解释,为困顿于中西方文化的学习者提供参考。关键词:中西方文化;现象;文化内涵;文化根基作 者:湖南对外经济贸易职业学院 ?1Cited phenomena A 1Mar riage A Chinese gir l got mar ried with an Amer ican boy and sett led down in Los Angeles not far away from wher e her par ents-in -law lived.T he fir st few months went by much smoothly and the Chinese girl got along very well with her new family. Six months later,she got pr egnant and infor med her par ents -in-law at the fir st moment.The r eady grandparents blessed her and her baby and went to Europe where they planned to enjoy a half -year holiday.The Chinese gir l was surprised at their decision:/Don .t you stay to take car e of me and my baby?Don .t you think the baby is the most import ant thing in the family now?0T he parents-in-law also got confused:/We love this baby,but does it mean we should give up our own life and do everything for it?0 B 1Rest aur ant customs A young Chinese tourist sat in a Par is caf and or der ed tea.Twice he asked for more hot water to top it up while putting the saucer on the cup to keep the tea warm,as he would have done at home. T he waiter grew impatient./This Chinese is too stingy t o pay for mor e tea.And doesn .t he know t he saucer goes under the cup to cat ch the dr ips?0 T he Chinese man noticed the displeasure on the wait er .s face and lost pat ience himself./This Wester n waiter is r ea lly stingy and silly!Why is he so reluctant to serve me hot water?Why does he put the lid under the cup?0he got angry,and left the caf st eam ing with resent ment. C 1Greeting An American student Charlie went to China and continued his study in Peking University.Ever ything went well with him except that the Chinese people were hard to understand for him somet imes. One day afternoon,he was on his way back from the super market when he encounter ed two Chinese classmates./H i,Charlie,wher e are you going?0one of the Chinese classmates greeted him./I .m just back from the supermar ket.0H e answer ed./What did you buy?0T he Chinese student continued./Er ,0Char lie felt ver y awkward,/I bought a bar of bread,five apples,a bott le of salad jam and ,0/You don .t have to tell us all these specific t hings,we ar e just greeting you by asking you questions.0/What?You confused me!0 ò.Analysis on the cited phenomenon and the cor responding cultur al implications In the fir st case,both the Chinese girl and her par ents-in -law can keep their own opinion.In China,it is par ents .dut y t o be responsible for their childr en and this responsibility will last (4)勤巡视病房,观察生命体征、面色、意识及有无感染、周围组织坏死等。当出现因插管技术而导致的并发症(如穿破脐血管造成出血插进或堵塞腹主动脉分支、空气栓塞、血栓形成、误插在门静脉沟处、穿破肝实质等)时,应通知医生尽早拔管,同时给予对症治疗,使症状得以改善。 (5)细菌学检测。每周1次分别做外周血和脐部穿刺处皮肤的细菌培养。本组病例共做16次外周血和脐部穿刺处皮肤的细菌培养,无1例发生院内感染等插管并发症。 参考文献: [1]余波,李莎莎.新生儿126例脐静脉插管末端细菌培养的临床分析[J]中国新生儿科杂志,2007(4) [2]宋新志,曹明艳,何咏梅,等.新生儿窒息血肌钙蛋白T 变化[J ]湘南学院学报,2005(1) [3]周宇,周晓光.新生儿胎粪吸入综合征临床分型与特点的初步探讨[J]中国当代儿科杂志,2000(5) [4]高树辉,周杰,张映辉,等.早产儿血脂水平与出生体重的关系[J]中国当代儿科杂志,2003(3)

中西方饮食文化差异比较

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浅析中西方教育文化差异

浅析中西方教育文化差 异 Document serial number【UU89WT-UU98YT-UU8CB-UUUT-UUT108】

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浅谈我眼中的中西方文化差异

浅谈我眼中的中西方文 化差异 Document number:PBGCG-0857-BTDO-0089-PTT1998

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