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语言学复习资料

语言学复习资料
语言学复习资料

下定义:

1.IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)

the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.Direct from the external form of syntactic structure, analyze the direct component of the sentence.

2. Endocentric Constructions (向心结构)

ENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.

3.Exocentric Constructions (离心结构)

EXOCENTRIC construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is funct ionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or

“Head” inside the group, usually including:the basic sentence ;the prepositional phrase

the predicate (verb + object) construction

the connective (be + complement) construction

4.Relations of Position(位置关系)

Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.

https://www.docsj.com/doc/0f14944569.html,positionality组合原则--- a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a

sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.

6.Performatives(施为句):

Utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.

https://www.docsj.com/doc/0f14944569.html,ngue(语言)--refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech

community.

8.Parole --refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language.

https://www.docsj.com/doc/0f14944569.html,petence: a language user?s underlying knowled ge about the system of rules.

10. Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations.

11.Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.

12.Bound morphemes--Morphemes which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme.

13.Variable words(可变化词) --- they may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may

have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.

walk, walks, walking, walked

14.Closed-class word(封闭词类):--- a word of closed class/ a class of words whose membership

is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.

15.Displacement移位性-- means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.Such as,I like Shakespeare?s drama;Mary comes from France.

Chapter1

1.Design Features of Language

(1) Arbitrariness 任意性(first discussed by Saussure)

Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. (指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系)

(2) Duality 二层性

Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.

the lower or the basic level/ secondary units---sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words

the higher level/ primary units---words which are meaningful

(3) Creativity创造性

Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness (递归性).

e.g. /ti:/--team, teach, teeth

(4) Displacement 移位性

Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.

I like Shakespeare?s drama. Mary comes from France.

2.Functions of language

Informative信息功能

The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.

Interpersonal function人际功能

The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their

status in a society. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves indicate various types of interpersonal relations, e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, yours truly, your obedient servant.

Performative施为功能

The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.

e.g. I now declare you to be husband and wife.

I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.

I apologize.

Bless you, my boy.

Sui sui ping an

I wish him in hell.

Emotive function感情功能

The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Cool, Ugh, Oh.

Phatic communion寒暄交际

The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.

Recreational function娱乐功能

The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby?s babbling or a chanter?s chanting.

Metalingual function元语言功能

The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about language itself. That is, the speaker uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. For example, “Let me tell you what the word …book? means.” In this sentence, the expression“the word book” is used to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.

3.Main branches of linguistics

phonology and phonetics

Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received. Phonology, on the other hand, is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds.

Morphology 形态学

Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning --- morphemes and word-formation processes.

Syntax 句法学

Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.

Semantics 语义学,Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.

Pragmatics 语用学

Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.

4.Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式与规定式

If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive

5.Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时与历时

The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.

Chapter3

1.Morphology is generally divided into two fields:

(1) Inflectional morphology屈折形态学: the study of inflections

(2) Derivational morphology派生形态学:the study of word-formation

2.Identification of words

1. stability 稳定性

Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure. Generally speaking, it is hard for one to re-arrange the internal structure of a complex word into a different order. But it is all right for us to rearrange the constituents in a sentence to a certain degree .

2. Relative uninterruptibility相对的连续性

new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word.

3. A minimum free form 最小的自由形式

It was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form”, word being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.

3.Classification of words

(1) Variable vs. invariable words 可变化词和不变词

Variable words --- they may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.

walk, walks, walking, walked

Invariable words---refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not

have inflective endings. 不变词指since, when, seldom, through, hello这一类词。它们没有形态结尾。

(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words 语法词和词汇词

Grammatical words/ function words---those words which express grammatical meanings, such as ,

conjunctions, prepositions, articles, auxiliaries and pronouns, are grammatical words. (表达语法意义的是语法词,如连词,介词,冠词,代词.)

on,of,upon,and,but, do/does/did, be, have, a,the,

Tom and his sister are playing cards in the house.

Lexical words/ content words---those words which have lexical meanings, that is , those words which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and

numerals, are lexical words. (具有词汇意义,指物质、动作和性质的词是词汇词,如名词,动词,形容词,副词和数词.)

(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words封闭类词和开放类词

Closed-class word(封闭词类):--- a word of closed class/ a class of words whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.(封闭词类的成员数目是确定的,有限的.新成员不会有规律地增加.例如代词,介词,连词,冠词等.)

open-class word(开放类词):--- a word of open class/a class of words whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.(开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的,无限的.例如名词,动词,形容词和多数副词.)

Chapter 4 From Word to Text

Four approaches:

1. Traditional Approach

2. Structural Approach (Saussure)

3. Transformational-generative Approach (Chomsky)

4. Functional Approach (Halliday)

Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:

Positional Relation (Syntagmatic Relation) (位置关系)

Relation of Substitutability (Paradigmatic Relation) (替换关系)

Relation of Co-occurrence (同现关系/纵横关系)

The analysis can be carried out in ways of

Bracketing (括号法)

Upright lines(竖线法)

Tree diagrams (树形法)

Recursiveness 递归性

Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category.

Recursiveness has become an umbrella term, under which may be brought together several important linguistic phenomena such as coordination and subordination, conjoining (连接)and embedding(嵌入), hypotactic(从属关系)and paratactic(并列关系). All these are means to extend sentences.

Hypotactic从属分句(subordinate clauses):

You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.

We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.

Paratactic 并列分句(coordinate clauses):

In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.

He dictated the letter. She wrote it.

The door was open. He walked in.

Chapter 5 Semantics

1.semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.

2.The major views concerning the study of meaning

(1) The naming theory 命名论(proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.)

(2) The conceptualist view 概念论

The conceptualist view is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle (语义三角) or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richards (1923).

(3)Contextualism 语境论

Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce meaning to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”.

(4)Behaviorism 行为主义论(is illustrated by Bloomfield

Behaviorism refers to the attem pt to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.

3.The referential theory 指称论

the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as referential theory.

把词语意义和它所指或所代表的事物联系起来的理论,叫做指称论。

The relationship between the word and the thing it refers to is not direct. It?s mediated by concept. (semantic triangle)

Concept is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind; it is the notion of the word related directly to the referent beyond language.

Sense--- sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, which is a collection of semantic meanings, abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.

意义是词汇意义的一个侧面,它是指词汇内在的抽象,独立于语境之外的意义,也是词典字意。

Reference --- reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality, between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

所指意义是词汇意义的另一个侧面,它是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。所指也叫“参照”“或“指称”,是指词和它们所代表的客观事物或现象的关系,它表现于一定的上

下文之中。

4.Sense Relation

Synonymy:refers to the sense relation of similarity in meaning between different words. Antonymy refers to the sense relation of oppositeness in meaning; words opposite in meaning are generally called antonyms

Types of antonyms

Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic contrast.

Complementaries or contradictory terms

They represent truly oppositeness in meaning . The contrast between the two terms is absolute. (alive/dead; present/absent; male/female; true/false;)

Contraries or gradable antonyms

They are gradable.

They are words expressing the semantic polarity, running between two poles or extremes.

huge/very big/big/quite big/medium-sized/quite small/small/tiny

beautiful/pretty/good looking/plain/ugly

Converses (关系反义词、对立词)

The pairs of antonyms are not only opposite in meaning but also interdependent of each other. Converses consist of relational opposites(关系反义词) and reverse terms(对立词).

Relational opposites indicate a social relationship as parent/child; husband /wife;

Reverse terms are pairs of antonyms which reverse each other as sell/buy; above/below.

Hyponymy(上下位义关系)

Hyponymy refers to the sense relation of inclusion between general and specific words, e,g. flower < rose, lily>.

Members of the same class are called co-hyponyms.

animal (superordinate)—lion, elephant and horse

5.An Integrated Theory 一个综合理论(J. Katz)

6.Basic ideas of logical semantics

(1)Propositional logic命题逻辑

A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.命题是陈述句被用于描述时所表达的意义。

John loves Mary.

John does not love Mary.

(2)Predicate logic 谓词逻辑

Predicate logic(谓词逻辑), also called predicate calculus(谓词演算), studies the internal structure of simple propositions.

Chapter 8 Language in Use

1.Definition of Pragmatics

The study of language in use.

The study of meaning in context.

The study of speakers? meaning

The study of utterance meaning( vs. Sentence Meaning)

The study of contextual meaning.

I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.

I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.

2.Speech Act Theory言语行为理论John Austin

3.Illocutionary Act Theory 行事行为理论

locutionary act 发话行为/ 言内行为

illocutionary act 行事行为/ 言外行为

perlocutionary act 取效行为/ 言后行为

4.The Theory of Conversational Implicature

会话含义理论

Herbert Paul Grice (1913-1988)

The Cooperative Principle (CP) 合作原则

Co operative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation.

(1)Maxim of Quantity 数量准则

a. Make your contribution as informative as required.

b. Don?t make your contribution more informative than is required.

(2)Maxim of Quality 质量准则

a. Don?t say what you believe to be false.

b. Don?t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

(3)Maxim of Relation 关系准则,Say things that are relevant

(4)Maxim of Manner 方式准则,Be perspicuous.

a. Avoid obscurity of expression.

b.Avoid ambiguity.

c. Be brief.

d. Be orderly.

5.Characteristics of implicature Calculability 可推导性

Cancellability / defeasibility 可取消性Non-detachability 不可分离性

Non-conventionality 非常规性

00541语言学概论必过资料

第一章语言和语言学 第一节语言的客观存在形式 一、语言: 1.语言是一种社会现象,不是一种物质实体。 2.言语交际是一个编码(说话)和解码(听话)的过程。 (语言的客观存在形式首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为,有声的口头语言,即口语) 3.语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言是不完全一模一样的。 二、口语和书面语的主要差别: 1.口语:是有声的口头语言。 2.书面语:是经过加工提炼和发展了的口语书面形式。 3.口语是第一性的,书面语是第二性的。 4.书面语比口语更精练、更精确。 5.书面语比口语省略成份少一些。(多了一些成份) 三、口语与书面语的关系: 1.口语是第一性的,书面语是第二性的。 2.书面语反过来影响和促进口语的发展。 3.口语、书面语基本是一致的。(一般情况下) 四、书面语产生具有重大的历史意义: 书面语的产生克服了口语的时间、空间的限制,是人类进入文明社会的标志。 五、语言和民族: 1.语言是民族的重要标志,但不是最可靠的标志。 (1)在绝大多数情况下一个民族使用一种语言。 (2)也有一个民族使用多种语言。(犹太民族) (3)不同民族使用同一种语言。(满族、汉族) (4)尽管语言是最直观的,最容易识别民族的标志,从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”,也许是维系一个“民族”的最根本的因素。 因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。不能单凭“互相理解程度”来区分语言和方言。() 六、语言与种族的关系: 语言和种族没有必然的联系,但不是完全没有联系。特别就“语系”而言,两者之间的联系还是比较明显的。(汉语、汉藏语系都有声调) 七、语言和种族没有必然联系的根本原因是:语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关,但是语言不是一种生理现象,也不是一种心理现象,不是先天遗传的,它是一种社会现象,完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系。 八、语言的客观存在形式:口语、书面语。语言的客观存在形式首先表现为有声的口头语言即口语, 而当出现了文字以后,又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语。 口语和书面语都有两个方面:一方面是表示一定意义的声音或图形,这是一种物理现象;另一方面则是由声音或图形(字)表示的意义,那是一种心理现象,或者说是思维活动的结果和感情流露。 第二节语言的性质 一、语言和言语 瑞士语言学家索绪尔是杰出的代表和集其大成的学者。 他的《普通语言学教程》(1916)开创了20世纪现代语言学的新局面。 1.什么是语言、言语? (1)言语:指说话这种行为和说出来的具体的话。 特色:a.具有个人因素(嗓音、用词等)。

汉语言文学语言学概论复习要点

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精品文档 Linguistics: I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets 1. ( ) The study of language as a whole is often called __________ linguistics. A. particular B. general C. ordinary D. generative 2. ( ) __________ can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A. Phones B. Sounds C. Phonemes D. Speech sounds 3. ( ) The two clauses in a __________ sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence. A. simple B. complete C. complex D. coordinate 4. ( ) The goal of __________ is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and indifferent social situations. A. psycholinguistics B. sociolinguistics C. historical linguistics D. general linguistics 5. ( ) A __________ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle 6. ( ) The open, back and long vowel is __________. A.[ɑ:] B.[?:] C.[?:] D.[u:] 7. ( ) Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable extent __________. A. regular but not systematic B. irregular and systematic C. regular and systematic D. irregular but systematic 8. ( ) A scientific study of language is based on the __________ investigation of language data. A. symbolic B. systemic C. systematic D. system 9. ( ) __________ are sometimes called “semivowels”. A. vowels B. fricative C. glides D. nasals 10. ( ) __________ is a typical tone language. A. English B. Chinese C. French D. American English 11. ( ) A sentence is considered __________ when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. A. right B. wrong C. grammatical D. ungrammatical 12. ( ) The number of the lexical items in the minor lexical categories is __________ and no new members are allowed for. A. large B. small C. limitless D. fixed 13. ( ) Human beings are the only species that learns and acquires language__________ explicit instruction. A. with B. without C. within D. through 14. ( ) According to F. de Saussure, __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all

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