生物医学工程专业英语及其翻译

1 Unit 1 Biomedical Engineering Lesson 1

A History of Biomedical Engineering

In its broadest sense, biomedical engineering has been with us for centuries, perhaps even thousands of years. In 2000, German archeologists uncover a 3,000-year-old mummy from Thebes with a wooden prosthetic tied to its foot to serve as a big toe. Researchers said the wear on the bottom surface suggests that it could be the oldest known limb prosthesis. Egyptians also used hollow reeds to look and listen to the internal goings on of the human anatomy. In 1816, modesty prevented French physician Rene Laennec from placing his ear next to a young woman’s bare chest, so he rolled up a newspaper and listened through it, triggering the idea for his invention that led to today’s ubiquitous stethoscope.

广义上来说,生物医学工程与我们已经几个世纪以来,甚至数千年。2000年,德国考古学家发现一个3000岁高龄的木乃伊从底比斯木制假肢与作为大脚趾的脚。研究人员说,穿底部表面上表明它可能是最古老的下肢义肢。埃及人也用空心的芦苇外观和听人类解剖学的内部行为。1816年,谦虚阻止法国医生雷奈克把他的耳朵旁边一个年轻女人的裸胸,所以他卷起报纸和听它,引发他的发明的想法,导致今天无处不在的听诊器。

No matter what the date, biomedical engineering has provided advances in medical technology to improve human health. Biomedical engineering achievements range from early devices, such as crutches, platform shoes, wooden teeth, and the ever-changing cache of instruments in a doctor’s black bag, to more modern marvels, including pacemakers, the heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, diagnostic equipment, imaging technologies of every kind, and artificial organs, implants and advanced prosthetics. The National Academy of Engineering estimates that there are currently about 32,000 bioengineers working in various areas of health technology.

无论什么日期,生物医学工程提供了先进的医疗技术来改善人类健康。生物医学工程成就范围从早期设备,如拐杖,松糕鞋,木制的牙齿,和不断变化的缓存工具在医生的黑包,更现代的奇迹,包括心脏起搏器、人工心肺机,透析机器,诊断设备,各种成像技术,和人造器官,移植和先进的假肢。美国国家工程学院的估计,目前大约有32000生物各领域工作的卫生技术。

As an academic endeavor, the roots of biomedical engineering reach back to early developments in electrophysiology, which originated about 200 years ago. An early landmark in electrophysiology occurred in 1848 when DuBois Reymond published the widely recognized Ueber die tierische Elektrizitaet. Raymond’s

contemporary, Hermann von Helmholtz, is credited with applying engineering principles to a problem in physiology and dentifying the resistance of muscle and nervous tissues to direct current.

作为一个学术努力,生物医学工程的根源及早期电生理学的发展,起源于约200年前。电生理学的早期具有里程碑意义的发生在1848年当杜布瓦Reymond发表了公认Ueber死tierische Elektrizitaet。赫尔曼·冯·雷蒙德?当代亥姆霍兹因应用工程原则问题在生理学和dentifying电阻直流的肌肉和神经组织。

In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen accidentally discovered that a cathode-ray tube could make a sheet of paper coated with barium platinocyanide glow, even when the tube and the paper were in separate rooms. Roentgen decided the tube must be emitting some kind of penetrating rays, which he called “X”rays for unknown. This set off a flurry of research into the tissue-penetrating and tissue-destroying properties of X-rays, a line of research that ultimately produced the modern array of medical imaging technologies and virtually eliminated the need for exploratory surgery.

1895年,威廉伦琴偶然发现,阴极射线管可以与氰亚铂酸盐钡一张纸涂布发光,即使管和纸是在单独的房间。伦琴决定管必须发出某种穿透光线,他称为“X”光线不明。这引发了一系列tissue-penetrating和专治属性的研究x 射线,一系列的研究,最终得出了现代医学影像技术和几乎消除了探索性手术的必要性。

Biomedical engineering’s unique mix of engineering, medicine and science emerged 2 alongside biophysics and medical physics early this century. At the outset, the three were virtually indistinguishable and none had formal training programs.

生物医学工程的独特工程、医学和科学出现2与生物物理学和医学物理学在本世纪初。开始的时候,三人几乎无法区分,没有正式的培训计划。

Between World War I and World War II a number of laboratories undertook research in biophysics and biomedical engineering. Only one offered formal training: the Oswalt Institute for Physics in Medicine, established in 1921 in Frankfurt, Germany, forerunner of the Max Planck Institute for Biophysics.

在第一次世界大战和第二次世界大战的实验室进行了生物物理学和生物医学工程的研究。只有一个提供正式的培训:Oswalt物理医学研究所,成立于1921年在法兰克福,德国马克斯普朗克生物物理学的先驱。

The Institute’s founder, Friedrich Dessauer, pioneered research into the biological effects of ionizing radiation. The Oswalt Institute and the University in Frankfurt soon established formal ties that led to a Ph.D. program in biophysics by 1940. Research topics included the effects of X-rays on tissues and the electrical properties of tissues. The staff of 20 included university lecturers, research fellows, assistants and technicians.

研究所的创始人,弗里德里希·德绍,率先研究电离辐射的生物效应。Oswalt研究所和大学在法兰克福很快建立了正式的关系,在1940年导致了生物物理学博士学位项目。研究主题包括x射线的影响在组织和组织的电特性。员工20包括大学教师、研究员、助理和技术人员。

Following the Second World War, administrative committees began forming around the combined areas of engineering, medicine and biology. A biophysical society was formed in Germany in 1943. Five years later, the first conference of engineering in medicine and biology convened in the United States, under the auspices of the Institute of Radio Engineers (forerunner of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), the American Institute for Electrical Engineering, and the Instrument Society of America. It was a small meeting. About 20 papers were delivered to an audience of fewer than 100. The first 10 annual conferences paid most of their attention to ionizing radiation and its implications. As conference topics broadened, so did attendance. The topic of the 1958 conference, Computers in Medicine and Biology, drew 70 papers and more than 300 attendees. By 1961, conference attendance swelled to nearly 3,000.

第二次世界大战之后,行政委员会开始在工程领域相结合,形成医学和生物学。生物物理协会于1943年在德国成立。五年后,工程在医学和生物学的第一次会议召开,在美国的支持下的无线电工程师学会(电气和电子工程师协会的前身),美国电子工程研究所和美国社会工具。这是一个小型的会议。大约20个文件是少于100的传递给观众。前10年会大部分关注电离辐射及其影响。作为会议主题扩大,出席。1958会议的主题、计算机在医学和生物学,吸引了70篇论文和70多名与会者。参加会议,到1961年增加到近3000人。

The 1951 IRE convention generated enough interest in medical electronics that the IRE formed a Professional Group on Medical Electronics. An early action of this group was to collaborate on the Annual Conference on Electronic Instrumentation and Nucleonics in Medicine, which the AIEE[1] began about 1948. In 1954, the AIEE, the IRE and the ISA formed the Joint Executive Committee on Medicine and Biology, which began organizing the annual conferences.

1951愤怒的约定产生足够的兴趣,医疗电子产品的愤怒形成一个专业小组医疗电子产品。本集团的早期行动是合作的年度会议上电子仪器和原子核物理学在医学、AIEE[1]大约始于1948年。1954年,AIEE,愤怒和ISA形成联合执行委员会医学和生物学,开始组织的年度会议。

In 1963, the AIEE and the IRE merged to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. Contributing forces for the merger were the members of the AIEE and IRE technical committees for biomedical engineering. Most members favored it and had been collaborating with their counterparts in the other society

for years.

1963年,AIEE和愤怒合并形成了电气与电子工程学院。贡献力量的合并是成员AIEE和愤怒为生物医学工程技术委员会。大多数成员支持,在其他社会和同行合作多年。

At the merger it was decided to carry over to the IRE system of Professional Groups. The IRE Professional Group on Medical Electronics became the IEEE Professional Group on 3 Bio-Medical Engineering (PGBME), the name change reflecting the fact that many members, particularly former AIEE members, were concerned with non-electronic topics.

Also in the early 1960s the NIH[2] took three significant steps to support biomedical engineering. First, it created a program-project committee under the General Medical Sciences Institute to evaluate program-project applications, many of which served biophysics and biomedical engineering. Then it set up a biomedical engineering training study section to evaluate training-grant applications, and it established two biophysics study sections. A special “floating”study section processed applications in bioacoustics and biomedical engineering. Many applications did not make it to the biomedical engineering study section and ended up in radiology, physiology or other panels.

The diversity of work in biomedical engineering and the diversity of background of the people contributing to this field made it difficult for a single organization to represent everyone[3]. In the 1960s there were efforts by some leaders of the PGBME, which became the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, to achieve greater autonomy within the IEEE in order to accommodate a more diverse membership. Because there were quite a few professional groups, several umbrella organizations were established to facilitate cooperation. In the late 1960s the Alliance for Engineering in Medicine and Biology was formed. In 1968, the Biomedical Engineering Society was formed to give "equal status to representatives of both biomedical and engineering interests and promote the increase of biomedical engineering knowledge and its utilization". Initially, the membership of the society consisted of 171 founding members and 89 charter members. Membership now numbers nearly 1,200 professional biomedical engineers, with another 1,600 student members.

在合并决定继续愤怒系统的专业团体。医疗电子产品成为了IEEE愤怒专业小组3生物医学工程专业小组(PGBME),许多成员名称更改反映了事实,尤其是前AIEE成员关心非电子的话题。

也在1960年代初美国国立卫生研究院[2]花了三个重要的步骤来支持生物医学工程。首先,它创建了一个项目委员会一般医学科学研究所评估项目应用程序,其中很多生物物理学和生物医学工程。然后建立了一个生物医

学工程训练研究部分,评估培训应用,和它建立了两个生物物理学研究部分。一个特殊的“漂浮”在生物声学研究部分加工应用和生物医学工程。许多应用程序没有生物医学工程研究部分,最终在放射学,生理学或其他面板。

在生物医学工程工作的多样性和背景的多样性导致这一领域使一个组织难以代表每个人[3]。在1960年代有PGBME的一些领导人,努力成为IEEE工程在医学和生物学的社会,为了实现更大的自治权在IEEE为了适应更多元化的会员。因为有不少专业团体,建立了几个伞组织促进合作。在1960年代后期工程在医学和生物学联盟成立。1968年,生物医学工程学会成立给“地位平等的代表生物医学和工程利益和促进生物医学工程知识的增加,其利用率”。最初,社会的成员包括171创始成员和89宪章》的成员。现在会员数量近1200专业生物医学工程师,1600年与另一个学生成员。

The society awarded the Alza Distinguished Lectureship from 1971 to 1993 to encourage the theory and practice of biomedical engineering. The BMES Distinguished Lectureship Award was founded in 1991 to recognize outstanding achievements in biomedical engineering. Other honors include a young investigator award, the BMES Distinguished Service Award, and the Presidential Award, established in 1999 to enable BMES presidents to recognize extraordinary leadership within the society.

In addition to the professional societies, the field of biomedical engineering received a large ally when The Whitaker Foundation was created in 1975, upon the death of U.A. Whitaker. As an engineer and philanthropist, Whitaker recognized that major contributions to improving human health would come from the merging of medicine and engineering. Since its inception, the foundation has primarily supported interdisciplinary medical research and 4 education, with the principal focus being on biomedical engineering. The foundation has become the nation’s largest private benefactor of biomedical engineering. By 2002, it had contributed more than $615 million to universities and medical schools to support faculty research, graduate students, program development, and construction of facilities.

In 1990 the National Science Foundation and The Whitaker Foundation observed that in spite of the numerous academic programs calling themselves "bioengineering" or "biomedical engineering", there was no structure for this widely diversified field. Because many advances in biomedical engineering were generated through the collaboration of engineers and clinical scientists in a number of different fields, the evolution of biomedical engineering as a profession in the 1970s and 1980s was characterized by the emergence of separate professional societies with a focus on applications within their own field.

协会授予Alza杰出讲师职务从1971年到1993年,鼓励生物医学工程的理论和实践。博雅杰出讲师职务奖表彰杰出成就的成立于1991年在生物医学工程。其他荣誉还包括一个年轻调查员奖,bme杰出服务奖,和总统奖,成立于1999年,使bme总统认识到非凡的领导在社会。

除了专业的社会,生物医学工程领域时收到一大笔盟友惠特克基金会成立于1975年,在U.A.惠特克的死亡。作为一个工程师和慈善家,惠特克承认,改善人类健康主要贡献来自医学和工程学的合并。自成立以来,该基金会主要支持跨学科医学研究和教育,主要集中在生物医学工程上。基金会已成为美国最大的私人捐助者生物医学工程。到2002年,它已经贡献了超过6.15亿美元的大学和医学院支持教师研究,研究生,项目开发和建设的设施。

1990年,美国国家科学基金会和惠特克基金会指出,尽管许多学术项目自称“生物工程”或“生物医学工程”,没有结构广泛多样化的领域。因为许多生物医学工程的进步通过协作生成工程师和临床科学家在许多不同的领域,生物医学工程的发展作为一个行业在1970年代和1980年代的独立的专业协会,专注于应用程序的出现在自己的领域。

As a step toward unification, the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering was created in 1992. AIMBE was born from the realization that an umbrella organization was needed to address the issues of public policy and public and professional education that comprise these engineering sciences. Ten societies saw the virtue of this approach and formed the original members of AIMBE. Today, its 17 society members work to "establish a clear and comprehensive identity for the field of medical and biological engineering, and improve intersociety relations and cooperation within the field of medical and biological engineering".

The earliest academic programs began to take shape in the 1950s. Their establishment was aided by Sam Talbot of Johns Hopkins University, who petitioned the National Institutes of Health for funding to support a group discussion of approaches to teaching biomedical engineering. Ultimately three universities were represented in these discussions: The Johns Hopkins University, the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Rochester. These three institutions, along with Drexel University, were among the first to win important training grants for biomedical engineering from the National Institutes of Health.

In 1973, discussions started about broadening the base of Pennsylvania’s graduate Department of Biomedical Electronic Engineering by including other activities and adopting and undergraduate curriculum. Its present graduate program is an extension of the earlier one.

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, development at other institutions followed similar paths, but occurred more rapidly in most cases due to the growing opportunities of the field and in response to the important NIH initiative to support the development of the field. The earlier institutions were soon followed by a second generation of biomedical engineering programs and departments. These included: Boston

University in 1966; Case Western 5 Reserve University in 1968; Northwestern University in 1969; Carnegie Mellon, Duke University, Renssselaer and a joint program between Harvard and MIT[4] in 1970; Ohio State University and University of Texas, Austin, in 1971; Louisiana Tech, Texas A&M and the Milwaukee School of Engineering in 1972; and the University of Illinois, Chicago in 1973.

一步统一,美国医学和生物工程研究所成立于1992年。AIMBE诞生于意识到伞组织需要解决问题的公共政策和公共和专业教育,包括这些工程科学。十个社会看到这种方法的优点,形成了原始AIMBE的成员。今天,17个社会成员努力”建立一个清晰的和全面的医学和生物工程领域的身份,并改善intersociety合作关系在医学和生物工程领域”。

最早的学术项目在1950年代开始成型。他们的建立是在约翰霍普金斯大学的萨姆·塔尔博特的帮助下,他请求美国国立卫生研究院的资金支持生物医学工程教学方法的小组讨论。最终三所大学在这些讨论代表:约翰霍普金斯大学,宾夕法尼亚大学和罗彻斯特大学的。这三个机构,随着德雷塞尔大学,是首批获得重要的培训基金从美国国立卫生研究院生物医学工程。

1973年,开始讨论扩大宾夕法尼亚的基础生物医学电子工程系毕业的包括其他活动,采用和本科课程。目前的研究生课程是早期的一种扩展。

在1960年代末和1970年代初,发展其他机构沿着这条路走下去,但发生更快在大多数情况下,由于日益增长的机会,为了应对重要NIH行动来支持这一领域的发展。早些时候机构很快就接着第二代生物医学工程项目和部门。包括:波士顿大学;1966年5凯斯西储大学;1968年西北大学;1969年卡内基梅隆大学,杜克大学,Renssselaer和哈佛和麻省理工学院联合项目[4];1970年俄亥俄州立大学和德克萨斯大学奥斯汀;1971年路易斯安那理工大学,德克萨斯A&M大学和密尔沃基工程学院;1972年1973年芝加哥和伊利诺斯州大学的。

The number of departments and programs continued to rise slowly but steadily in the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1992, The Whitaker Foundation initiated large grant programs designed to help institutions establish or develop biomedical engineering departments or programs. Since then, the numbers of departments and programs have risen to more than 90. Some of the largest and most prominent engineering institutions in the country, such as the Georgia Institute of Technology, have established programs and emerged as leaders in the field. Many other new and existing programs have benefited from the foundation’s support.

A major development took place in late 2000 when President Clinton signed a bill creating the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering at the NIH. According to NIBIB’s website, its mission is to "improve health by promoting fundamental discoveries, design and development, and translation and assessment of technological capabilities". The Institute coordinates with biomedical imaging and bioengineering programs of other agencies and NIH institutes to support imaging and engineering

research with potential medical applications and facilitates the transfer of such technologies to medical applications.

The newest of the NIH institutes, NIBIB spent much of 2001 building program and administrative staff, preparing a budget request, setting up office space, determining funding and grant identification codes and procedures, and identifying program (research, training, and communication) focus areas and opportunities. NIBIB assumed administration of the NIH's Bioengineering Consortium (BECON) in September 2001, and awarded its first research grant in April 2002.

部门和项目的数量继续增长缓慢但稳步在1980年代和1980年代初。1992年,惠特克基金会发起大型格兰特计划旨在帮助机构建立或发展生物医学工程部门或项目。从那时起,部门和项目的数量已经上升到超过90人。一些最大和最著名的工程机构,如美国乔治亚理工学院(Georgia Institute of Technology),建立了项目和领域成为领导者。许多其他新的和现有项目受益于基金会的支持。

一个主要的发展发生在2000年晚些时候,克林顿总统签署了一项法案创建国家生物医学成像和生物工程研究所美国国立卫生研究院。根据NIBIB的网站,它的使命是“改善健康通过促进基本发现,设计和开发,和翻译和技术能力评估”。生物医学成像和生物工程研究所坐标与项目的其他机构和国家卫生研究院机构支持成像和工程研究与潜在的医学应用和促进这些技术在医学应用上的转移。

最新的美国国立卫生研究院的机构,NIBIB 2001建设项目和行政人员,大部分时间都在准备预算要求,建立办公空间,确定资金和格兰特识别代码和程序,并确定项目(研究、培训和交流)重点领域和机会。NIBIB认为政府的美国国立卫生研究院生物工程协会(BECON)2001年9月和2002年4月首次获得科研资助。

Lesson 2 What is a Biomedical Engineer?

A Biomedical Engineer uses traditional engineering expertise to analyze and solve problems in biology and medicine, providing an overall enhancement of health care. Students choose the biomedical engineering field to be of service to people, to partake of the excitement of working with living systems, and to apply advanced technology to the complex problems of medical care. The biomedical engineer works with other health care professionals including physicians, nurses, therapists and technicians. Biomedical engineers may be called upon in a wide range of capacities: to design instruments, devices, and software, to bring together knowledge from many technical sources to develop new procedures, or to conduct research needed to solve clinical problems.

生物医学工程师使用传统的工程技术在生物学和医学分析问题和解决问题,提供一个卫生保健的整体提高。学生选择生物医学工程领域服务的人来说,参加工作与生活系统的兴奋,并将先进的技术应用到医疗保健的复杂问题。生物医学工程师的工作与其他卫生保健专业人员包括医生、护士、理疗师和技术人员。生物医学工程师可

能要求在范围广泛的能力:设计工具,设备和软件,汇集知识外,还可以从许多技术资源开发新程序,或进行研究需要解决的临床问题。

What are Some of the Specialty Areas?

In this field there is continual change and creation of new areas due to rapid advancement in technology; however, some of the well established specialty areas within the field of biomedical engineering are: bioinstrumentation; biomaterials; biomechanics; cellular, tissue and genetic engineering; clinical engineering; medical imaging; orthopaedic surgery; rehabilitation engineering; and systems physiology.

Bioinstrumentation is the application of electronics and measurement techniques to develop devices used in diagnosis and treatment of disease. Computers are an essential part of bioinstrumentation, from the microprocessor in a single-purpose instrument used to do a variety of small tasks to the microcomputer needed to process the large amount of information in a medical imaging system.

Biomaterials include both living tissue and artificial materials used for implantation. Understanding the properties and behavior of living material is vital in the design of implant materials. The selection of an appropriate material to place in the human body may be one of the most difficult tasks faced by the biomedical engineer. Certain metal alloys, ceramics, polymers, and composites have been used as implantable materials. Biomaterials must be nontoxic, non-carcinogenic, chemically inert, stable, and mechanically strong enough to withstand the repeated forces of a lifetime. Newer biomaterials even incorporate living cells in order to provide a true biological and mechanical match for the living tissue.

在这个领域有持续的变化和创造新领域由于技术的快速进步,然而,一些良好的生物医学工程领域内的专业领域是:生物仪器;生物材料;生物力学;细胞,组织和基因工程;临床工程;医学成像;骨科手术;改造工程、系统生理学。

生物仪器是电子测量技术的应用开发设备用于疾病的诊断和治疗。计算机是生物仪器的重要组成部分,从微处理器专用仪器用来做各种小任务所需的微机处理大量的信息在医学成像系统中。

生物材料包括活组织和人工材料植入。理解生活的属性和行为材料植入材料的设计是至关重要的。选择一个合适的材料放置在人体可能面临的最困难的任务之一,生物医学工程师。某些金属合金、陶瓷、聚合物和复合材料作为植入材料。生物材料必须无毒,non-carcinogenic、惰性、稳定,机械强大到足以承受一生的重复的力量。新的生物材料甚至把活细胞提供一个真正的生物活组织和机械匹配。

Biomechanics applies classical mechanics (statics, dynamics, fluids, solids, thermodynamics, and continuum mechanics) to biological or medical problems. It includes the study of motion, material deformation, flow within the body and in devices, and transport of chemical constituents across biological and

synthetic media and membranes. Progress in biomechanics has led to the development of the artificial heart and heart valves, artificial joint replacements, as well as a better understanding of the function of the heart and lung, blood vessels and capillaries, and bone, cartilage, intervertebral discs, ligaments and tendons of the musculoskeletal systems.

Cellular, Tissue and Genetic Engineering involve more recent attempts to attack biomedical problems at the microscopic level. These areas utilize the anatomy, biochemistry and mechanics of cellular and sub-cellular structures in order to understand disease processes and to be able to intervene at very specific sites. With these capabilities, miniature devices deliver compounds that can stimulate or inhibit cellular processes at precise target locations to promote healing or inhibit disease formation and progression.

Clinical Engineering is the application of technology to health care in hospitals. The clinical engineer is a member of the health care team along with physicians, nurses and other hospital staff[1]. Clinical engineers are responsible for developing and maintaining computer databases of medical instrumentation and equipment records and for the purchase and use of sophisticated medical instruments. They may also work with physicians to adapt instrumentation to the specific needs of the physician and the hospital. This often involves the interface of instruments with computer systems and customized software for instrument control and data acquisition and analysis[2]. Clinical engineers are involved with the application of the latest technology to health care.

生物力学应用经典力学(静力学、动力学、液体、固体、热力学和连续介质力学)生物或医学问题。它包括运动的研究,材料变形、流在身体和设备,和运输的化学成分在生物和合成媒体和膜。生物力学的进展已经导致人工心脏和心脏瓣膜的发展,人工关节置换,以及更好地了解心脏和肺的功能,血管和毛细血管、骨、软骨、椎间盘、韧带和肌腱的肌肉骨骼系统。

细胞、组织和基因工程涉及最近试图攻击生物医学在微观层面的问题。这些地区利用解剖学,生物化学和细胞和亚细胞结构的力学为了了解疾病过程和能够干预非常具体的地点。这些功能,小型设备提供化合物可以刺激或抑制细胞过程精确的目标位置,促进愈合或抑制疾病的形成和发展。

临床工程技术医疗在医院的应用。临床工程师是健康护理小组的成员以及医生、护士和其他医护人员[1]。临床工程师负责开发和维护计算机的数据库记录和医疗仪器、设备的购买和使用复杂的医疗器械。他们也可能与医生合作,使仪器适应特定需求的医生和医院。这通常涉及仪器与计算机系统的接口和定制软件仪器控制和数据采集和分析[2]。临床工程师参与卫生保健的最新技术的应用。

Medical Imaging combines knowledge of a unique physical phenomenon (sound, radiation, magnetism, etc.) with high speed electronic data processing, analysis and display to generate an image. Often, these

images can be obtained with minimal or completely noninvasive procedures, making them less painful and more readily repeatable than invasive techniques.

Orthopaedic Bioengineering is the specialty where methods of engineering and computational mechanics have been applied for the understanding of the function of bones, 9 joints and muscles, and for the design of artificial joint replacements. Orthopaedic bioengineers analyze the friction, lubrication and wear characteristics of natural and artificial joints; they perform stress analysis of the musculoskeletal system; and they develop artificial biomaterials (biologic and synthetic) for replacement of bones, cartilages, ligaments, tendons, meniscus and intervertebral discs. They often perform gait and motion analyses for sports performance and patient outcome following surgical procedures. Orthopaedic bioengineers also pursue fundamental studies on cellular function, and mechano-signal transduction.

Rehabilitation Engineering is a growing specialty area of biomedical engineering. Rehabilitation engineers enhance the capabilities and improve the quality of life for individuals with physical and cognitive impairments. They are involved in prosthetics, the development of home, workplace and transportation modifications and the design of assistive technology that enhance seating and positioning, mobility, and communication. Rehabilitation engineers are also developing hardware and software computer adaptations and cognitive aids to assist people with cognitive difficulties.

医学成像结合知识的独特的物理现象(声音、辐射、磁场等)与高速电子数据处理、分析和显示生成一个图像。通常,这些图像可以获得最小的或完全非侵入性程序,让他们不那么痛苦并且更容易重复的非侵入性技术。

骨科生物工程的专业工程和计算力学方法已经申请了骨骼的功能的理解,9关节和肌肉,人工关节置换的设计。骨科生物分析的摩擦、润滑和磨损特征的自然和人工关节;他们执行肌肉骨骼系统的应力分析;他们发展人工生物材料(生物和合成)替代骨骼、软骨、韧带、肌腱、半月板和椎间盘。他们经常对体育进行步态和运动分析性能和病人手术后的结果。骨科生物也追求基本细胞功能研究,和mechano-signal转导。

康复工程是一个日益增长的生物医学工程专业。康复工程师提高能力,提高个人的生活质量与物理和认知障碍。它们参与假肢,家乡的发展,工作场所和交通的设计修改和辅助技术,提高座位和定位,移动和通信。康复工程师也在开发硬件和软件计算机适应性和认知艾滋病协助人们认知的困难。

Systems Physiology is the term used to describe that aspect of biomedical engineering in which engineering strategies, techniques and tools are used to gain a comprehensive and integrated understanding of the function of living organisms ranging from bacteria to humans[3]. Computer modeling is used in the analysis of experimental data and in formulating mathematical descriptions of physiological events. In

research, predictor models are used in designing new experiments to refine our knowledge. Living systems have highly regulated feedback control systems that can be examined with state-of-the-art techniques. Examples are the biochemistry of metabolism and the control of limb movements.

These specialty areas frequently depend on each other. Often, the biomedical engineer who works in an applied field will use knowledge gathered by biomedical engineers working in other areas. For example, the design of an artificial hip is greatly aided by studies on anatomy, bone biomechanics, gait analysis, and biomaterial compatibility. The forces that are applied to the hip can be considered in the design and material selection for the prosthesis. Similarly, the design of systems to electrically stimulate paralyzed muscle to move in a controlled way uses knowledge of the behavior of the human musculoskeletal system. The selection of appropriate materials used in these devices falls within the realm of the 10 biomaterials engineer.

系统生理学方面的术语用来描述生物医学工程的工程策略,技术和工具被用来获得全面、综合的了解生物体的功能从细菌到人类[3]。使用计算机模拟实验数据的分析和制定生理事件的数学描述。在研究中,预测模型用于设计新的实验来完善我们的知识。生命系统高度监管的反馈控制系统,可以与最先进的检测技术。的例子是代谢的生化和肢体动作的控制。

这些专业领域经常互相依赖。通常,一个应用领域的生物医学工程师工作将使用在其他领域知识收集的生物医学工程师的工作。例如,人工髋关节的设计极好地研究解剖学、骨生物力学、步态分析、生物兼容性。应用到臀部的力量可以被认为是在假体的设计和材料的选择。同样,系统的设计电刺激瘫痪肌肉控制的方式移动使用的知识人体肌肉骨骼系统的行为。选择适当的材料用于这些设备属于10生物材料领域的工程师。

Examples of Specific Activities

Work done by biomedical engineers may include a wide range of activities such as:

Artificial organs (hearing aids, cardiac pacemakers, artificial kidneys and hearts, blood oxygenators, synthetic blood vessels, joints, arms, and legs).

Automated patient monitoring (during surgery or in intensive care, healthy persons in unusual environments, such as astronauts in space or underwater divers at great depth).

Blood chemistry sensors (potassium, sodium, O2, CO2, and pH). Advanced therapeutic and surgical devices (laser system for eye surgery, automated delivery of insulin, etc.).

Application of expert systems and artificial intelligence to clinical decision making (computer-based systems for diagnosing diseases).

Design of optimal clinical laboratories (computerized analyzer for blood samples, cardiac catheterization

laboratory, etc.).

Medical imaging systems (ultrasound, computer assisted tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, etc.).

Computer modeling of physiologic systems (blood pressure control, renal function, visual and auditory nervous circuits, etc.).

Biomaterials design (mechanical, transport and biocompatibility properties of implantable artificial materials).

Biomechanics of injury and wound healing (gait analysis, application of growth factors, etc.). Sports medicine (rehabilitation, external support devices, etc.).

由生物医学工程师的工作可能包括范围广泛的活动,如:

人工器官(助听器、心脏起搏器、人工肾脏和心脏,血液氧合器、人造血管、关节,武器,和腿)。

自动病人监护(在手术或重症监护,健康的人在不寻常的环境中,如宇航员在太空或水下潜水员在伟大的深度)。

血液化学传感器(钾、钠、O2、CO2和pH值)。先进的治疗和手术设备(激光眼科手术系统,自动化的胰岛素,等等)。

专家系统和人工智能应用于临床决策诊断疾病(计算机系统)。

设计最优的临床实验室(电脑分析仪对血液样本,心导管实验室,等等)。

医学成像系统(超声波、计算机辅助断层扫描、核磁共振成像正电子发射断层扫描,等等)。

计算机模拟的生理系统(控制血压、肾功能、视觉和听觉神经电路,等等)。

生物材料设计(机械、运输和生物相容性植入式人工材料的属性)。

生物力学的损伤和伤口愈合(步态分析、应用生长因子等)。运动医学(康复、外部支持设备等)。

Where do Biomedical Engineers Work?

Biomedical engineers are employed in universities, in industry, in hospitals, in research facilities of educational and medical institutions, in teaching, and in government regulatory agencies. They often serve a coordinating or interfacing function, using their background in both the engineering and medical fields. In industry, they may create designs where an in-depth understanding of living systems and of technology is essential. They may be involved in performance testing of new or proposed products. Government positions often 11involve product testing and safety, as well as establishing safety standards for devices. In the hospital, the biomedical engineer may provide advice on the selection and use of medical equipment, as well

as supervising its performance testing and maintenance. They may also build customized devices for special health care or research needs. In research institutions, biomedical engineers supervise laboratories and equipment, and participate in or direct research activities in collaboration with other researchers with such backgrounds as medicine, physiology, and nursing. Some biomedical engineers are technical advisors for marketing departments of companies and some are in management positions.

Some biomedical engineers also have advanced training in other fields. For example, many biomedical engineers also have an M.D. degree, thereby combining an understanding of advanced technology with direct patient care or clinical research.

生物医学工程师受雇于大学,在工业,在医院、在教育和医疗机构研究设施,教学,和政府监管机构。他们经常为协调或接口函数,使用他们的背景在工程和医学领域。在工业上,他们可能创建设计,深入理解生命系统和技术是至关重要的。他们可能参与提出新的或产品的性能测试。政府职位11通常涉及到产品测试和安全,以及建立设备安全标准。在医院里,生物医学工程师可以提供建议的选择和使用医疗设备,以及监督其性能测试和维护。他们也可能构建定制的特殊医疗设备或研究的需要。在研究机构,生物医学工程师监督实验室和设备,并参与或直接研究活动与其他研究人员合作等背景医学、生理学、和护理。一些生物医学工程师是技术顾问公司和一些营销部门的管理职位。

一些生物医学工程师也有其他领域的高级培训。例如,许多生物医学工程师也有一个医学博士学位,从而了解先进技术结合直接病人护理或临床研究。

How Should I Prepare for a Career in Biomedical Engineering?

The biomedical engineering student should first plan to become a good engineer who then acquires a working understanding of the life sciences and technology. Good communication skills are also important, because the biomedical engineer provides a vital link with professionals having medical, technical, and other backgrounds.

High school preparation for biomedical engineering is the same as that for any other engineering discipline, except that life science course work should also be included. If possible, Advanced Placement courses in these areas would be helpful. At the college level, the student usually selects engineering as a field of study, then chooses a discipline concentration within engineering. Some students will major in biomedical engineering, while others may major in chemical, electrical, or mechanical engineering with a specialty in biomedical engineering. As career plans develop, the student should seek advice on the degree of specialization and the educational levels appropriate to his or her goals and interests. Information on sources

of financial aid for education and training should also be sought. Many students continue their education in graduate school where they obtain valuable biomedical research experience at the Masters or Doctoral level. When entering the job market, the graduate should be able to point to well defined engineering skills for application to the biomedical field, with some project or in-the-field experience in biomedical engineering.

生物医学工程的学生应该首先计划成为一个好的工程师,然后获得一个工作对生命科学和技术的理解。良好的沟通能力也很重要,因为生物医学工程师提供了一个至关重要的与专业人员在医疗、技术和其他背景。

高中生物医学工程做准备一样,对于其他工程学科,除了生命科学课程也应包括在内。如果可能的话,这些领域的进阶先修课程将是有益的。在学院层面,学生通常选择工程的研究领域,然后选择一门学科集中在工程。一些学生将生物医学工程专业,而其他人可能主修化工、电气、生物医学工程或机械工程专业。作为职业规划发展,学生应该咨询的专业化程度和教育水平适合他或她的目标和利益。信息来源的金融教育和培训也应该寻求援助。许多学生在研究生院继续深造,获得宝贵的生物医学研究经验的硕士或博士水平。当进入就业市场,毕业生应该能够指向定义良好的工程技术应用到生物医学领域,有一些项目或在生物医学工程领域的经验。

How do I become a Biomedical Engineer?

If you want to become a biomedical engineer, there are several paths that you can follow. All involve a college education.

You can study biomedical engineering in a wide variety of formats at the undergraduate level. In some universities, students major in biomedical engineering in a department that typically offers a broad-based program of study in engineering and science. At other universities, students major in a traditional engineering department, such as electrical or mechanical engineering, and study biomedical engineering as a technical specialty.

Many universities offer a graduate program in biomedical engineering for those who have completed any of a number of undergraduate engineering or science degree programs.

如果你想成为一个生物医学工程师,有几个路径,您可以遵循。所有涉及大学教育。

你可以研究生物医学工程在各种格式在本科水平。在一些大学,学生主要在生物医学工程部门,通常提供了一个广泛的研究在工程和科学的计划。在其他大学,学生主要在传统的工程部门,如电子或机械工程和研究生物医学工程技术专业。

许多大学提供生物医学工程的研究生课程对于那些已经完成的本科工程或科学学位项目。

Unit 2 Biomedical Instrumentation

Lesson 3 Basic Instrumentation Systems

The term "instrumentation" has a multitude of different meanings to scientists in various fields of endeavor. To the physician, instruments are the tools of his trade; therefore, anything from an ear speculum, which is placed in the external ear to help visualize the eardrum, to a surgical retractor[1], which holds back the edges of an incision, is considered to be an instrument. The engineer is more specific in his or her use of the term "instrumentation". We refer to instrumentation as those pieces of equipment that may be used to supply information concerning some physical quantity (usually referred to as a variable). This variable may be fixed and thus have the same value for a long time for a given physiological system, or it may be a quantity, that can change with time.

In considering biomedical instrumentation, we will, out of necessity, have to limit ourselves to instruments that fit the engineering definition. We will be concerned with those instruments that directly obtain physiologic information from organisms. While the examples of the ear speculum and the surgical retractor can be considered instruments because they make it possible for the physician to visually observe parts of the body that could not be normally seen, we will not consider these, since indeed the observation is made by the physician rather than by the devices described. On the other hand, we do not want our definition of instrumentation to be too limiting, for indeed when fiber optic image conduits for visualization within the body are considered, we will certainly want to classify them as biomedical instruments, although their function is only a small extension of that of the speculum or retractor described above.

“仪器”一词有许多不同的含义各领域科学家的努力。医生,仪器贸易的工具,因此,任何东西,从一只耳朵窥器,这是放置在外耳帮助可视化耳膜,一个手术牵开器[1],该基金持有的边缘一个切口,被认为是一种乐器。工程师在他或她的具体使用术语“仪表”。我们将仪器与设备,可用于提供信息关于一些物理量(通常被称为一个变量)。这个变量可能是固定的,因此具有相同的价值很长一段时间对于一个给定的生理系统,或者它可能是一个数量,可以改变随着时间的推移。

我们将在考虑生物医学仪器,出于必要,不得不限制自己仪器符合工程的定义。我们将关注那些直接从生物获得生理信息的工具。而耳窥器的例子和手术牵开器可以被认为是工具,因为他们让医生来直观地观察身体部位通常无法看到的,我们不会考虑这些,因为实际上所做的观察是医生而不是描述的设备。另一方面,我们不希望我们的仪器的定义太限制,确实当光纤图像在身体被认为是渠道可视化,我们肯定会希望将其分类为生物医学仪器,虽然其功能仅仅是一个小的扩展上述镜或牵开器。

Instruments, therefore, are used to provide information about physiologic systems. In providing such information the instrument is carrying out an indicating function. This function may be achieved by a moving pointer on a meter, an aural or visual alarm, or by flashing numbers or words on a screen to describe the

variable being measured. Many instruments not only indicate the value of a variable at a particular instant in time, but can also make a permanent record of this quality as time progresses, thus carrying out a recording function as well as an indicating function. Instruments that present the measured variable on a graphic chart, a computer screen, a magnetic or compact disk, or a printed page carry out the recording function. Today computers perform these functions by storing data in digital form on media such as semiconductor memory and magnetic or optical discs.

A third function that some instruments perform is that of control. Controlling instruments can, after indicating a particular variable, exert an influence upon the source of the variable to cause it to change. A simple example of a controlling instrument is an ordinary room thermostat. If the room is too cold, the thermostat measures the temperature and senses that it is too cold; then it sends a signal to the room heating system, encouraging it to supply more heat to the room to increase the temperature. If, on the other hand, the thermostat determines that the room is too hot, it turns off the source of heat, and in some cases supplies cooling to the room to bring the temperature back to the desired point. In our discussion of temperature control later on, we will look more closely at this controlling function of instruments, however, for the most part, we will be concerned with instruments that only indicate and record.

仪器,因此,用于提供信息的生理系统。在提供此类信息仪器正在开展一个指示函数。这个函数可以通过一个移动的指针仪表,听觉或视觉报警,或在屏幕上闪烁的数字或文字来描述被测变量。许多仪器不仅表示一个变量的值在一个特定的时刻,但这也可以做永久的记录质量随着时间的推移,因此进行录音功能和指示功能。仪器测量变量在一个图形图表,电脑屏幕上,磁光盘或一个打印页面进行录音功能。今天电脑上执行这些功能在数字形式存储数据媒体如半导体存储器和磁或光盘。

第三个功能,一些工具执行的控制。表明一个特定的变量后,控制仪器可以施加影响的变量导致其改变。控制仪器的一个简单的例子是一个普通的房间温控器。如果房间太冷,温度测量温度和感觉它太冷,那么它将一个信号发送给房间供暖系统,鼓励它在房间里提供更多的热量增加温度。另一方面,如果温控器确定房间太热,它关闭热的来源,在某些情况下供应冷却房间温度回所需的点。以后温度控制在我们的讨论中,我们将更多地关注这个控制功能的工具,然而,在大多数情况下,我们只会关心仪器显示和记录。

In engineering we often find it necessary to carry out rather complex operations. These can be done by a group of connected component parts, each of which carries out a single relatively simple function. This connected group of components is known as a system. Therefore, in engineering we can take a group of simple, single-function blocks and put them together in such a way that we have a system that can perform operations far more complex than those of the individual blocks. This block concept will be very useful in the

description of biomedical instrumentation systems. Often we find that a system can be graphically described by drawing a diagram of these blocks showing how they are connected together to achieve the desired function. Such a diagram is known as a block diagram[2], and it is a good way to show the interrelationship of the system components.

All instrumentation systems can be generally described by the block diagram of Figure 1.1. Here the system consists of three different parts: the sensor, the processor and the display and/or storage. Let us examine each block separately to determine its function in the overall system

在工程中,我们经常发现有必要开展而复杂的操作。这些可以通过一组连接的组成部分,每一个都进行一个相对简单的功能。这种连接的组件被称为一个系统。因此,在工程我们可以一组简单,单功能的块,再将它们组合在一起,这样我们有一个系统,可以执行操作更复杂的比单独的块。这个块的概念将是非常有用的生物医学仪器系统的描述。我们经常发现系统可以通过画一个图以图形方式描述这些块展示它们是如何连接在一起来实现所需的功能。这种图称为方框图[2],它是一个很好的方式显示系统组件的相互关系。

所有仪表系统一般可以描述的框图如图1.1。系统由三个不同的部分组成:传感器、处理器和显示和/或存储。让我们检查每个块分别确定整个系统的功能

. Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a general instrumentation system

The sensor converts energy from one form to another, the second being related to the original energy in some predetermined way. As an example, let us consider a microphone. Sound energy in the air surrounding the microphone interacts with this sensor, and some of 17 the energy is used to generate an electrical signal. This electrical signal is related to the sound entering the microphone in such a way that it can be used to produce a similar sound at a loud speaker when appropriately processed. Thus, the microphone has acted as a transducer. The loud speaker has also acted as a transducer since it converted the electrical energy back to sound. The terms sensor and transducer are often used interchangeably. We will distinguish them by considering a sensor as a very low energy device that performs an energy conversion for the purpose of making a measurement.

There are many other possibilities than the above example for energy conversion by a transducer. There are represented by the diagram in Figure 1.2. As we move around the periphery of the figure we find the various forms of energy that are encountered by the instrumentation specialist. Mechanical energy refers to the potential and kinetic energies of a mass of any material. Although acoustic, hydraulic and thermal energies would all fit into this classification, these other quantities are encountered sufficiently by

instrumentation specialists that they are considered separately. Acoustic energy refers to the energy of sound waves, either in air or some other conducting medium such as biologic tissue. Hydraulic energy refers to the energy contained in a fluid (liquid or gas). This energy can be in the form of kinetic energy of a flowing fluid, or it can be the potential energy of a fluid under pressure. Thermal energy refers to the energy available in a material as a result of its temperature.

传感器将能量从一种形式转换为另一种格式,第二个是相关的原始能量以某种预定的方式。例如,让我们考虑一个麦克风。声能在麦克风与周围的空气传感器,和一些17能量被用来产生一个电信号。这个电信号与麦克风的声音进入这样一种方式,它可以被用来制造类似的扬声器,声音适当处理。因此,麦克风作为传感器。扬声器也充当了传感器,因为它的电能转换回的声音。传感器和传感器往往交替使用。我们将区分考虑传感器作为一个非常低的能源装置,执行一个能量转换为目的的测量。

有许多其他的可能性比上面的例子中换能器的能量转换。有代表的关系图如图1.2所示。当我们移动的边缘图我们发现各种形式的能量所遇到的仪器专家。机械能是指潜力和动能的任何材料的质量。尽管声、液压和热能量都适合这种分类,这些其他数量遇到仪器专家,他们分别被认为是足够的。声能指声波的能量,在空气中或其他导电介质,如生物组织。液压能源指的是能源包含在流体(液体或气体)。这种能量可以以动能的形式流动的液体,也可以是流体在压力下的势能。热能是指可用的能源材料由于其温度。

Another form of energy that is of particular interest to the biomedical instrumentation specialist is electrical energy. This is the energy that can be imparted to an electric charge and is a useful means of conveying information in instrumentation systems. Optical energy refers to energy in the form of light or electromagnetic radiation very similar to light such as infrared and ultraviolet radiation. With the advent of the laser, this has become important in medical instrumentation systems. Finally, chemical energy refers to the energy associated with the formation and reaction of various chemical compounds.

It is theoretically possible for a transducer to convert some energy in any one of the forms mentioned above to any other of the forms. Therefore, we can represent the transducers by the lines drawn between the different energy forms on the diagram. For the microphone example described above, this transducer would be located on the line connecting acoustic and electrical energies. Since, in the microphone, acoustic energy is converted to electrical energy; we would represent this on the line with an arrow pointing from acoustic to electrical energy. If, on the other hand, we consider the loud speaker; here electrical energy is converted into sound waves. We would represent this transducer on the same line, but the arrow would point from electrical to acoustic energy.

另一种形式的能量,是特别感兴趣的生物医学仪器专家电能。这是可以传授一个电荷和能量,是一个有用的仪器系统中传达信息的手段。光能量指的是能量以光的形式或电磁辐射非常相似的红外线和紫外线辐射等。随着激光的出现,这已经成为重要的医疗仪器系统。最后,化学能是指能源相关的各种化合物的形成和反应。

从理论上讲,一个传感器转换能量形式,任何一个在上面提到的任何其他形式。因此,我们可以代表换能器之间的线画在图上不同的能量形式。上面描述的麦克风的例子,这个传感器位于线连接声学和电能量。以来,麦克风,声能转化为电能,我们将代表这从声与上面的箭头指向的电能。另一方面,如果我们考虑扬声器;这里电能转换成声波。我们将代表这个传感器在同一行,但箭头将从电声学能量点。

Figure 1.2 Chart of different possible types of transducers

There are many other examples of transducers that could be placed on this chart. Some of these transducers are reversible; i.e., the arrow on the line could be drawn in either direction. An example of a reversible system might be the storage battery used in an automobile. When it is used to supply electrical energy to start your automobile, it is a chemical to electrical transducer and so the arrow would point towards electrical energy. However, when your car is running, electrical energy is supplied back to the battery to replace the charge depleted by starting the car. In this case, the battery is serving as an electrical to chemical transducer. Since the battery is the same in both cases, it is said to be reversible type of transducer. There are some types of transducers that are not reversible. For example, consider a light bulb. This is an electrical to optical energy transducer, since when we supply an electric current, it lights up producing optical energy. However, with common light bulbs we cannot shine a light on it and expect to find any electrical energy produced at its terminals; therefore, this device cannot be used as an optical to electrical transducer. Thus, it is said to be an irreversible transducer.

Although there are many kinds of devices that convert one form of energy to another as 19 illustrated in Figure 1.2, we usually only refer to those that are used for purposes of gathering information as sensors. Thus devices such as electric motors, electric heaters, steam boilers, etc. would not be considered as sensors although they carry out the same function but at much higher energy levels.

There are three general requirements for transducers used in instrumentation systems.

These are:

1. Accuracy

2.Stability

3.3. Lack of interference with the physiological variable being measured[3].

翻译期末作业

浅谈中国菜名的翻译 我国悠久的历史和广袤的国土孕育了中国独特的烹饪艺术和丰富的饮食文化。我们国家也以几千年的饮食文化文明于世。随着我国经济飞速发展，与国外交流日益增多，餐饮业也面临着走向世界的机遇和挑战。中国菜名是汉语语汇中承载中国文化最多的语汇之一, 不仅承载着几千年来的中国饮食文化, 还承载着大量的非饮食文化, 如神话、民俗、历史、文学、宗教信仰等等, 在菜名所传达的表层语义背后有着更为深厚复杂的多元文化元素。同时由于饮食与文化的密切联系，这些都大大增大了翻译的难度。 1.首先我们来看一下一些我们常见的错误翻译 长期以来，菜名的翻译没有统一的标准，加上译者水平有限和地域差异，并不了解菜式的内涵，致使很多菜名的翻译让人感到不知所云。比如口水鸡slobbering chicken、童子鸡chicken without sexual life、夫妻肺片the couple’s lung 等，这翻译让外国人看了都吓跑了，哪里还有食欲吃饭呢？再如东坡肉poet Dongpo’s braised pork，东坡肉是用蒸的方法做出来的，所以这里应该为Poet Dongpo’s steamed pork 而不是用braised；“鱼香肉丝”较常见的有两种译法，另外也有人译为shredded pork with garlic sauce，前者译法为直译，后者加了简单的解释，虽然看似简单易懂，很直观，但是译者没有弄清楚此菜的配料，川菜口味浓重，很多菜肴的配料都是少不了“川菜之魂”郫县豆瓣酱，鱼香肉丝正是用到此配料，是不用所谓的大蒜酱，所以后者翻译存在误的地方；水煮鱼，也是川菜中的代表作，又麻又辣，有译者翻译为tender stewed fish，这个译法不够全面，应该在后面加上in chili sauce；夫妻肺片译为pork lungs in chili sauce，这个译法的译者应该不明白此菜的来历和主料，夫妻肺片根本不是用猪肺做成的，而且和肺一点都不沾边，此菜的主料都是用牛内脏，所以这个译发讲不通。对于以上的翻译错误我们不能只是一笑而过，我们应该感受到菜名翻译的难度，从而思考怎样才能更好的翻译来达到最佳的效果。

化学专业英语(修订版)翻译

01 THE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 01 元素和元素周期表 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number, or proton number, Z. The number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number, Z. The total mass of an atom is determined very nearly by the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. This total is called the mass number, A. The number of neutrons in an atom, the neutron number, is given by the quantity A-Z. 质子的数量在一个原子的核被称为原子序数,或质子数、周淑金、电子的数量在一个电中性原子也等于原子序数松山机场的总质量的原子做出很近的总数的质子和中子在它的核心。这个总数被称为大量胡逸舟、中子的数量在一个原子,中子数,给出了a - z的数量。 The term element refers to, a pure substance with atoms all of a single kind. T o the chemist the "kind" of atom is specified by its atomic number, since this is the property that determines its chemical behavior. At present all the atoms from Z = 1 to Z = 107 are known; there are 107 chemical elements. Each chemical element has been given a name and a distinctive symbol. For most elements the symbol is simply the abbreviated form of the English name consisting of one or two letters, for example: 这个术语是指元素,一个纯物质与原子组成一个单一的善良。在药房“客气”原子的原子数来确定它,因为它的性质是决定其化学行为。目前所有原子和Z = 1 a到Z = 107是知道的;有107种化学元素。每一种化学元素起了一个名字和独特的象征。对于大多数元素都仅仅是一个象征的英文名称缩写形式,一个或两个字母组成,例如: oxygen==O nitrogen == N neon==Ne magnesium == Mg

土木专业英语翻译作业

桂林理工大学土木与建筑工程学院 土木工程专业英语外文翻译，中文翻译 姓名：马凤志 专业：土木应用 班级：10级9班 学号：3100510939

原文

中文翻译 The Influence of Concrete Compaction on the Strength of Concrete Filled Steel Tubes 压实混凝土对混凝土强度的影响 Lin-Hai Han School of Civil Engineering, Harbin University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Haihe Road 202, PO Box 689, Harbin 150090, P.R. China 韩林海，哈尔滨建筑大学，土木与建筑工程学院，海河路202号，邮政信箱，689，哈尔滨，150090 中国 ABSTRACT: Tests on twenty-one concrete filled steel tubes to investigate the influence of compaction methods on the strength of concrete filled steel tubular members are reported. 摘要：测试二十一钢管混凝土试验，研究了钢管对混凝土构件强度压实方法的影响报告。 Two parameters were investigated, including slenderness ratio and load eccentricity. 对两个参数进行研究，包括长细比和荷载偏心。 It was found that better compaction of concrete resulted in higher values of the ultimate strength of concrete filled steel

风景园林专业英语(第一二课翻译)

The practice and theory of Landscape Architecture 景观规划设计理论 【1】Landscape Architecture involves the five major components:They are natural process，human factors，methodology，technology，and values，whatever the scale or emphasis of operation，these five components are consistently relevant.Social and nature factors clearly permeate every facet of a profession that is concerned with people and land. Problem solving，planning，and design methods apply at all scales.Good judgment is consistently required. 风景园林设计包含五个主要方面:自然进程、社会进程、方法论、技术、价值观,无论规模尺度或运作的重点各不相同,这五个要素一贯是相关的。社会因素和自然因素的因子充斥着这个关系到人与土地的领域的方方面面。解决问题,规划、设计方法都会用到所有的尺度。正确的判断判断是一贯必须的。 【2】Consider how natural factors data are relevant to both planning and design.At the regional scale，the impact of development or change in use on a landscape must be known and evaluated before a policy to allow such action is set.An inventory of the natural factors，including geology，soils，hydrology，topography，climate，vegetation and wildlife，and the ecological relationships between them is fundamental to and understanding of the ecosystem to which change is contemplated.Equally important is an analysis of visual quality .Land use policy can thus be made on the basis of the known vulnerability of resistance of the landscape.In other circumstances the natural processes which add up to a given landscape at a give moment in its evolution may，as at Grand Canyon and other unique places，be considered a resource to be preserved，protected，and managed as a public trust.On a smaller scale，soil and geological conditions may be critical in the determination of the cost and the form of building foundations: where it is most suitable to build and where it is not.Sun，wind，and rain are important factors of design where the development of comfort zones for human activity or the growth of plants is a primary objective.Thus，in many ways natural factors influence land use，site planning，and detailer design. 自然因素的考虑与规划和设计都有关系。在区域尺度上，关于利用方面的开发变化的影响，在政策制定之前，必须了解和评估景观的脆弱性和敏感性。详细的自然因素,包括地质的、土壤的、水文的、地形地貌的、气候的、植被的和野生动物的、以及它们之间的生态关系是理解它将要改变的生态系统的基础。同样重要的是视觉质量的分析。土地利用政策的基础是由于了解到景观的脆弱性和抗损性的基础上建立的。在某些发展进化的过程中，一些在特定的时刻作用到特定的景观的自然进程会产生一些公共资源,比如科罗拉多大峡谷，让我们后人去保护它和管理它。在小尺度上，土壤和地质条件是决定建筑的成本和建筑基础形态的关键要素——哪里适宜建立以及哪里不适宜。设计是为人类发展活动找到适宜的空间或者以植物的生长为主要目标，因此，阳光,风和雨是设计最重要的要素。因此,场地和区域的自然要素在景观规划和设计的许多过程当中相互作用。 【3】The social factors apply equally at various scales.In site planning and landscape design，cultural variation in the use and appreciation of open space and parks and the physical and social needs of the young and old are some of the many variables to be considered in a design process that aims to be responsive to social values and human needs.In decisions relates to appropriation of landscape for recreation and aesthetic value people’s perception of t he environment and the

《化学工程与工艺专业英语》课文翻译 完整版

Unit 1 Chemical Industry 化学工业 1.Origins of the Chemical Industry Although the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin‘s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939). 1．化学工业的起源 尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。可以认为它起源于工业革命其间，大约在1800年，并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料的产业。比如制肥皂所用的碱，棉布生产所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造业所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我们会注意到所有这些都是无机物。有机化学工业的开始是在十九世纪六十年代以William Henry Perkin 发现第一种合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志的。20世纪初，德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面的重点研究，到1914年，德国的化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%的份额。这要归因于新染料的发现以及硫酸的接触法生产和氨的哈伯生产工艺的发展。而后者需要较大的技术突破使得化学反应第一次可以在非常高的压力条件下进行。这方面所取得的成绩对德国很有帮助。特别是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆发，对以氮为基础的化合物的需求飞速增长。这种深刻的改变一直持续到战后（1918-1939）。 date bake to/from: 回溯到 dated: 过时的，陈旧的 stand sb. in good stead: 对。。。很有帮助

专业英语大作业

专业英语大作业 一：英译汉 翻译范围TCP/IP Illustrated, V olume 1: The Protocols 5.1~5.5 15.1~15.2 第5章RARP：逆地址解析协议 5.1简介 5.2 RARP报文格式 5.3 RARP示例 5.4 RARP服务的设计 5.5小结 练习 5.1简介 一个拥有本地磁盘的系统通常是从磁盘文件读取配置文件中获取其IP地址。但一个没有磁盘的系统，如X终端或无盘工作站，需要一些其它方式去获得其IP地址。 每个系统在网络上都有一个唯一的硬件地址，由网络接口的制造商分配。 RARP的原则是无盘系统从接口卡上读取其独特的硬件地址，并发送RARP请求（网络上的广播帧）要求别人对无盘系统的IP地址（使用RARP回应）进行应答。 虽然这个概念很简单，执行往往比ARP更难，在本章后面会描述其原因。 RARP的正式规范是RFC 903。 5.2 RARP报文格式 RARP报文的格式几乎与ARP报文是相同的（图4.3）。唯一的区别是，RARP 的请求或应答帧类型为0×8035，并且在操作层RARP请求值为3、RARP应答值为4。 图4-3 ARP在网络上请求与应答报文的格式 与ARP一样，RARP服务器请求是广播和RARP应答通常是单播。 5.3 RARP示例 在我们的网络，我们可以强制sun主机从网络引导，而不是它的本地磁盘。 如果我们在主机bsdi上运行RARP服务器和tcpdump，我们得到如图5.1所示的输出。我们使用-e参数去标记tcpdump的打印硬件地址：

图5.1 RARP请求和应答。 该RARP请求是广播（1号线）的，第2行的RARP应答是单播的。第2行的输出，“at sun”,意味着RARP应答包含了主机sun（140.252.13.33）的IP地址。 在第3行，我们看到，一旦sun接收其IP地址，它会发出一个TFTP读请求（RRQ）的文件8CFCOD21.SUN4C。（TFTP是简单文件传输协议，我们在第15章进行详细描述）。在文件名中的8个十六进制数字是sun主机的IP地址140.252.13.33的十六进制表示形式。这是在RARP应答中返回的IP地址。该文件名的其余部分，后缀SUN4C表示系统正在引导的类型。 Tcpdump表示第3行是一个长度为65的IP数据报，而不是一个UDP数据报（实际上它确实是），因为我们运行tcpdump命令使用-e参数，看硬件级别的地址。另一点，在图5.1要注意的是在第2行的以太网帧的长度似乎比最小较短（我们所说的是在4.5节60字节）。原因是我们的系统，该系统上运行的tcpdump 发送该以太网帧（BSDI）。该应用程序rarpd，写42字节到BSD分组过滤器装置（14字节的以太网报头和28字节的RARP应答），这是什么的tcpdump收到的副本。但以太网设备驱动程序垫这个短帧的最小尺寸为传输（60 ）。如果我们在另一个系统上已经运行的tcpdump ，长度会是60。 我们可以看到在这个例子，当这种无盘系统接收在RARP应答它的IP地址，它会发出一个TFTP请求来读取一个引导映像。在这一点上，我们不会进入其他详细介绍无盘系统是如何引导自己。（第16章介绍了使用RARP ，BOOTP和TFTP无盘X终端的引导顺序。） 图5.2表示出了如果有在网络上没有RARP服务器所得到的数据包。每个数据包的目的地址为以太网的广播地址。以太网地址跟随的是目标硬件地址，并按照发送端的硬件地址发送。

园艺专业英语

萼片sepal 花瓣petal 雄蕊stamen 心皮carpel 转化transform 突变体mutant 花的floral 繁殖的reproductive 草坪dormant 休眠 turfgrass 草坪草 lawn 草坪草 mower 割草机 mulch覆盖，覆盖物（n）；覆盖树根(vt) mulch applicator 覆膜机 Lolium 黑麦草属 tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) 高羊茅 perennial 多年生的 annual 一年生植物（n）；一年生的（adj） ryegrass (Lolium perenne) 黑麦草 productive高产的 productivity 生产力 cultivate栽培，耕作 cultivar 品种 cultivation under cover保护地栽培 cultural practice栽培措施，栽培技术，栽培实践 culture system栽培系统 forage 草料 翻译Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) is widely planted in many regions of the world and is closely related to a lot of Lolium species including perennial r yegrass (Lolium perenne) and annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum). The Festuca-Lolium complex possesses well-adapted, highly productive grass species. These cultivated forage grasses provide invaluable economic and social benefits as forage and turf grasses per year. tiller n. 耕种者, 分蘖vi. 分蘖 apical dominance 顶端优势 agronomic traits 农艺性状 agronomist农艺学家，农学家 density 密度 plant stature （height）株高 mow用镰刀或割草机割草 Increasing tiller number and reducing the apical dominance in turfgrass are one of the most

上海海洋大学专业英语期末翻译

Analog computers are analog devices. That is, they have continuous states rather than discrete numbered states. An analog computer can represent fractional or irrational values exactly, with no round-off. Analog computers are almost never used outside of experimental settings. 模拟计算机是模拟设备。也就是说，他们是连续状态而不是离散的有限状态。一个模拟计算机可以精确代表小数或无理数，没有舍入。模拟计算机几乎从不被使用在实验设置以外。 A processor typically contains an arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), control unit( including processor flags, flag register, or status register), internal buses, and sometimes special function units( the most common special function unit being a floating point unit for floating point arithmetic). 一个处理器通常包含一个算术/逻辑单元（运算器），控制单元(包括处理器标志，标志寄存器，或状态寄存器)，内部总线，有时特殊功能单元(最常见的特殊功能单元作为一个浮点单元用于浮点运算)。 CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. Mainframe computers and minicomputers were CISC processors, with manufacturers competing to offer the most useful instruction sets. Many of the first two generations of microprocessors were also CISC. CISC代表复杂指令集计算机。大型计算机和小型计算机是CISC处理器，与制造商竞争提供最有用的指令集。微处理器的前两代中许多也是CISC。 Lesson 2 Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense mounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). 超级计算机是一个广泛的术语，因为它是目前可用的最快的计算机之一。超级计算机是非常昂贵的，并且它被用于需要大量的数学计算（数字运算）的专门应用。 It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstation. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting up to 200 users simultaneously. 它是一个中型计算机。在过去的十年中，大的小型机和小的大型机之间的区别已经模糊，然而，有小的小型机和工作站之间的区别。但在一般情况下，一个小型机是一个能够同时支持多达200个用户的多处理系统。 Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, a large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. 工作站一般都配有一个大的，高分辨率的图形屏幕，大量的内存，内置网络支持以及一个图形用户界面。大多数工作站也有一个大容量存储设备如磁盘驱动器，但是一种特殊类型的工作站，被称为无盘工作站，是不带磁盘驱动器的。

电子商务专业英语作业翻译

E-commerce (electronic commerce or EC) is the buying and selling of goods and services on the Internet, especially the World Wide Web. In practice, this term and a newer term, e-business, are often used interchangably. For online retail selling, the term e-tailing is sometimes used. 电子商务（电子商务或电子商务）是购买和出售的商品和服务在互联网，特别是万维网上的。在实践中，这项和一个新的术语，电子商务，往往交替使用。网上零售，电子零售的术语有时用。 E-tailing or The Virtual Storefront and the Virtual Mall 网上或虚拟商店和虚拟商店 As a place for direct retail shopping, with its 24-hour availability, a global reach, the ability to interact and provide custom information and ordering, and multimedia prospects, the Web is rapidly becoming a multibillion dollar source of revenue for the world's businesses. A number of businesses already report considerable success. As early as the middle of 1997, Dell Computers reported orders of a million dollars a day. By early 1999, projected e-commerce revenues for business were in the billions of dollars and the stocks of companies deemed most adept at e-commerce were skyrocketing. Although many so-called dotcom retailers disappeared in the economic shakeout of 2000, Web retailing at sites such as https://www.docsj.com/doc/ff7795258.html,, https://www.docsj.com/doc/ff7795258.html,, and https://www.docsj.com/doc/ff7795258.html, continues to grow. 作为一个直接的零售购物，其24小时供应，全球性的，互动的能力，并提供自定义信息和订购，和多媒体，网络正在迅速成为一个数十亿美元的收入来源，为全球的企业。一些企业已报告了相当大的成功。早在1997年年中，戴尔电脑报告的订单一百万美元一天。1999年初，预计的电子商务业务收入都在数十亿美元的股票和公司认为最善于电子商务暴涨。虽然许多所谓的互联网零售商消失在经济衰退2000，网上零售网站如https://www.docsj.com/doc/ff7795258.html,，https://www.docsj.com/doc/ff7795258.html,，和https://www.docsj.com/doc/ff7795258.html,继续增长 Market Research 市场研究 In early 1999, it was widely recognized that because of the interactive nature of the Internet, companies could gather data about prospects and customers in unprecedented amounts -through site registration, questionnaires, and as part of taking orders. The issue of whether data was being collected with the knowledge and permission of market subjects had been raised. (Microsoft referred to its policy of data collection as "profiling" and a proposed standard has been developed that allows Internet users to decide who can have what personal information.) Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

园艺中英文对照表

中英文对照表 树体器官： 芽bud 侧芽lateral bud 顶芽terminal bud 花芽flower bud 叶芽leaf bud 腋芽axillary bud 混合芽mixed flower bud 纯花芽simple flower bud 休眠芽dormant bud 潜伏芽latent bud 根际Rhizosphere 茎stem 花粉anther 徒长枝water sprout 长枝long branch 短枝short shoot 结果枝bearing branch 叶leaf 叶腋axil 叶上表皮leaf epidermis 叶柄Petiole 叶脉leaf vein 叶缘leaf margin 叶肉Mesophyll 花flower 柱头stigma 雌蕊Pistils 雄蕊stamen 花萼Sepal 花托Receptacle 花瓣petal 子房ovary 果实fruit 果肉Pulp；flesh 果柄carpopodium 树干trunk 树冠crown 坐果fruit set 生理作用： 光合作用Photosynthesis 碳水化合物Carbohydrate 光合产物Photosynthate 养分Nutrient 同化作用Assimilation 异化作用Dissimilation 补偿点Compensation point 呼吸作用Respiration 有氧呼吸Aerobic respiration 厌氧呼吸Anaerobic respiration 生理干旱Physiological drought 固氮作用Nitrogen fixation 水分不足Water deficit 新陈代谢Metabolism 伤流现象Guttation 休眠dormancy 花期Florescence 授粉Pollinate 种间杂交Interspecfic cross 人工授粉Artificial pollination 杂交Intercrossing 蒸腾作用transpiration 水肥营养：

专业英语翻译作业译文

专业英语翻译作业译文 1.科学家们认为，这样微弱的粒子正则轨道实际上是不存在的。的想法现在已被事实否定了。 2.虽然小行星很小很微弱，天文学家已经知道很多关于它们的大小，形状和组合物，通过使用各种直接和间接的技术。例如，它是已知的许多小行星的亮度的周期性变化。 3.随着疾病的进展，大肌肉也稳步增长疲软。如果不治疗，患者变得瘫痪有呼吸非常困难，并最终死亡。 4.将信息从计算机的一部分转移到另一个取决于电流进行了线。 5.只有两件事是天文观测----站立的地方和地方看需要。 6.太阳风严重扭曲地球磁场，把它拖了一个长长的尾巴。 7.使用计算机，我们组成了一系列的合成歌曲的混合自然音节为不同的模式。 8.苍头燕雀的显示，找出正确的声音模仿的本能，这表明本能学习鸟类作为他们发展他们的歌曲一样重要。 9.We know from the fossil record that our ancestors and other intelligent creatures,the australopithecines,branched off from an apelike creature 2.5 million to 3 million years ago ,and coexisted until the australopithecines died out a little less than a million years ago.Stone tools and other evidence at campsites that date form about 2,000,000 B.C.indicate that some form of australopithecine performed human activities ------ making tools,sharing food and working together. 我们知道从化石记录我们的祖先和其他智能生物，猿，分枝从远古的生物2500000到3000000年前，南方古猿和共存直到死了比一百万年前少了一点。石器和露营地，日期约2000000 b.c.表明某种形式的南方古猿表现人类活动------制作工具的其他证据，分享食物，一起工作。 10.properties of metals Metals are of great use to mankind because of their useful engineering properties. Strength is one of the important properties of metals .It enables them to resist external loads without incurring structural damages.Metals, possessing toughness, a property of absorbing considerable energy before fracture,bend rather than break. Another property of metals is elasticity.Because of their elasticity,metals subjected to an external load are distorted or stained, and return to their original dimensions when the load is released if the load is not too great. Ductility is the capacity of a metal to be permanently deformed in tension without breaking. That is why some metals, such as copper and aluminum, can be drawn erom a large into a smaller diameter of wire.

应用化学专业英语翻译完整篇

1 Unit5元素周期表 As our picture of the atom becomes more detailed 随着我们对原子的描述越来越详尽，我们发现我们陷入了进退两难之境。有超过100多中元素要处理，我们怎么能记的住所有的信息？有一种方法就是使用元素周期表。这个周期表包含元素的所有信息。它记录了元素中所含的质子数和电子数，它能让我们算出大多数元素的同位素的中子数。它甚至有各个元素原子的电子怎么排列。最神奇的是，周期表是在人们不知道原子中存在质子、中子和电子的情况下发明的。Not long after Dalton presented his model for atom( )在道尔顿提出他的原子模型（原子是是一个不可分割的粒子，其质量决定了它的身份）不久，化学家门开始根据原子的质量将原子列表。在制定像这些元素表时候，他们观察到在元素中的格局分布。例如，人们可以清楚的看到在具体间隔的元素有着相似的性质。在当时知道的大约60种元素中，第二个和第九个表现出相似的性质，第三个和第十个，第四个和第十一个等都具有相似的性质。 In 1869,Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev,a Russian chemist, 在1869年，Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev ,一个俄罗斯的化学家，发表了他的元素周期表。Mendeleev通过考虑原子重量和元素的某些特性的周期性准备了他的周期表。这些元素的排列顺序先是按原子质量的增加,,一些情况中, Mendeleev把稍微重写的元素放在轻的那个前面.他这样做只是为了同一列中的元素能具有相似的性质.例如,他把碲(原子质量为128)防在碘(原子质量为127)前面因为碲性质上和硫磺和硒相似, 而碘和氯和溴相似. Mendeleev left a number of gaps in his table.Instead of Mendeleev在他的周期表中留下了一些空白。他非但没有将那些空白看成是缺憾，反而大胆的预测还存在着仍未被发现的元素。更进一步，他甚至预测出那些一些缺失元素的性质出来。在接下来的几年里，随着新元素的发现，里面的许多空格都被填满。这些性质也和Mendeleev所预测的极为接近。这巨大创新的预计值导致了Mendeleev的周期表为人们所接受。 It is known that properties of an element depend mainly on the number of electrons in the outermost energy level of the atoms of the element. 我们现在所知道的元素的性质主要取决于元素原子最外层能量能级的电子数。钠原子最外层能量能级（第三层）有一个电子，锂原子最外层能量能级（第二层）有一个电子。钠和锂的化学性质相似。氦原子和氖原子外层能级上是满的，这两种都是惰性气体，也就是他们不容易进行化学反应。很明显，有着相同电子结构（电子分布）的元素的不仅有着相似的化学性质，而且某些结构也表现比其他元素稳定（不那么活泼） In Mendeleev’s table,the elements were arranged by atomic weights for 在Mendeleev的表中，元素大部分是按照原子数来排列的，这个排列揭示了化学性质的周期性。因为电子数决定元素的化学性质，电子数也应该（现在也确实）决定周期表的顺序。在现代的周期表中，元素是根据原子质量来排列的。记住，这个数字表示了在元素的中性原子中的质子数和电子数。现在的周期表是按照原子数的递增排列，Mendeleev的周期表是按照原子质量的递增排列，彼此平行是由于原子量的增加。只有在一些情况下（Mendeleev注释的那样）重量和顺序不符合。因为原子质量是质子和中子质量的加和，故原子量并不完全随原子序数的增加而增加。原子序数低的原子的中子数有可能比原子序数高的原