A Generalization of the Hyperspace Approach Using Meta-Models
A Generalization of the Hyperspace Approach Using Meta-Models
Daniel Lohmann, Jürgen Ebert
University of Koblenz-Landau
Institute for Software Technology
Universit?tsstra?e 1, D-56070 Koblenz
{daniel, ebert}@uni-koblenz.de
Abstract
In this paper we describe a generalization of the Hyperspace approach of T ARR and O SSHER that is applicable to design de-scription languages. We understand artifact languages de-scribed by meta-models as the primary dimensions of a multi-dimensional concern space. This space is filled by concrete concerns and by concrete artifacts to build an integrated graph-based multi-paradigm design description. Secondary dimen-sions may be added to describe non-artifact-based concerns. User-defined views to and extraction of concern subsets is fa-cilitated by a transitive closure approach.
1. Introduction
During software development, a lot of different concerns have to be taken into account. New concerns come in from very dif-ferent sources and show up in every stage of the development process [1]. Depending on persons and stages these concerns are expressed in different ways. For example, one typical form of concern in object-oriented design is expressed by classes; during analysis we usually speak about concerns like features or performance requirements, etc.
These different kinds of concerns can be understood as differ-ent views to the system. T ARR and O SSHER introduced the idea to interpret these views as dimensions of a concern space and to do multi-dimensional separation of concerns (MDSoC) on this integrated model[2, 3]. They call this approach the Hyper-space approach.
Concerns are usually described in some form of formalism. We call these formalisms artifact languages. Like a dimension in the Hyperspace, an artifact language describes a specific view on the software system. For example, UML provides a set of sublanguages that are used for different views (e.g. static view, dynamic view …) at different stages.
We are convinced that there is a strong relationship between views/dimensions on the one side and artifact languages on the other side. For successful MDSoC over the whole software de-velopment cycle, one therefore needs a model that supports on-demand integration of artifacts and artifact languages. How-ever, current attempts for MDSoC and aspect-oriented software development (AOSD) mainly focus on single languages and mainly on the implementation phase. Our goal was to find a model that supports MDSoC by language integration already in the earlier stages of software development, especially dealing with the languages of software design.
In this paper we introduce an approach for MDSoC by lan-guage integration using meta-models. Our approach is based on the Hyperspaces idea of O SSHER and T ARR, which also claims to support MDSoC over all stages of the software development cycle [3, 4]. However, the current instantiation in Hyper/J again supports only one type of artifacts (namely Java .class files) and thus it emphasizes the implementation phase. Our in-vestigations showed that some constraints of the formal Hyper-space model are too strict for less formal languages like the ones typically used in software design. Hence we decided to extend and generalize the Hyperspaces idea with a focus on language integration of design languages.
This paper is organized as follows: First, we introduce the ter-minology and basic concepts of the Extended Hyperspace model in section 2. In section 3, the model is then put into practice by an example. Section 4 discusses the main differ-ences to the original Hyperspace model and gives an overview of other related work. Finally, in section 5 we conclude our work.
2. The Extended Hyperspace Model
In this section we introduce the Extended Hyperspace model. As mentioned above, our model is based on the Hyperspace idea by O SSHER and T ARR. We use the same basic concepts and terminology where appropriate.
2.1. Basic Concepts and Terminology
Software consists of artifacts, i.e documents describing the concerns of a software system. Artifacts are written in artifact languages,like the UML family of languages and its sublan-guages (e.g. class diagrams, use-case diagrams …).
An ideal artifact language describes just one kind (dimension) of concerns. While this is (mostly) true for the UML languages, other real languages may be a combination of more than one ideal language. In this paper we assume that we have to deal with ideal languages only.
Each artifact language consists of a set of syntactical constructs that can be used to build concrete artifacts. We call these syn-tactical constructs unit types. Examples for unit types in UML class diagrams are class, attribute and method.
Syntax and semantics of an artifact language itself has to be de-fined in some formalism. For the visual languages used in software design, meta-modeling is a suitable and common way to do so1. Here we use meta-modeling for describing the ab-stract syntax of artifact languages. Each syntactical concept (unit type) of the language is represented by a meta-class in the meta-model, and each relationship between them is represented by a meta-association. However, the abstract syntax makes no assumptions about shaping and layout of units and relation-ships.
1 For text-oriented artifact languages, one would probably use formal gram-mars for similar purposes.
1
For illustration purposes, we use very simple and minimal meta-models here. These meta-models are intentionally kept simple for comprehensibility reasons; the whole approach should work for real-life meta-models as well. Our meta-models contain only those unit and relationship types that are actually used in the concrete artifacts of the example. We also omit all additional properties of the unit and relationship types like cardinalities, constraints etc. Figure 1 shows the meta-model for class diagrams. It consists of only one unit type class and two relationship types: isSuperclassOf for super-/subclass relationships and hasRelationshipTo for associations. This is a fairly simple meta-model, but powerful enough to instantiate artifacts like the class diagram shown in Figure 2.
Similarly, a meta-model for use-case diagrams is defined in Figure 3 with a concrete use case diagram being shown in Figure 4.
2.2. Integrating Dimensions into a Concern Space
In the (Extended) Hyperspace model, units and concerns are organized in a concern space. A concern space consists of a set of dimensions, a set of concerns and a set of units. Each con-cern is placed in exactly one dimension . Each unit is mapped to zero or more concerns, namely the concerns it addresses.
The aim of a concern space is to integrate units and concerns of a software system in such a way, that concerns can be easily identified and separated, that relationships between different concerns become clear and that a software system can be built out of selected concerns [3].
As stated above, we understand artifact languages as dimen-sions of a concern space. Thus, a concern space can be seen as an integrated and multi-paradigm design description of a soft-ware system. It is built by integrating all the dimensions of concerns (artifact languages ), and integrating the descriptions of concrete concerns (artifacts ) into it.
Integration of artifact languages corresponds to integration of the underlying meta-models [5]. Figure 5 shows this integra-tion for our meta-models of class and use-case diagrams. Here, the integration is done by adding an additional relationship that connects unit types from different languages. A new meta-association isUsedIn has evolved. Its intention is to connect a class to those use-cases that utilize services of the class e.g. by working on its instances.2 This integration information is the key benefit of integration; it provides extra knowledge about inter-dimensional connections and dependencies that is not available from the original artifacts. We will use it later on for selecting and separating concerns.
2.3. Secondary Dimensions of Concerns
The dimensions we have taken into account so far are all based on artifact languages. Each artifact language used to describe concerns of our software system opens up one dimension of concerns. For example, the concerns modeled by class dia-grams are classes, so we place each class as a concern on a
Note that we are distinguishing between class unit and class concern. The first one is a syntactical construct provided by the artifact language; the second one is an intentional construct of our mind. However, often there is a one-to-one relationship be-tween them: Each class concern usually coincides with exactly one class unit, i.e. the unit is a syntactical representative of the
2
A formal background for meta-modeling of abstract syntax including the
meaning of meta-model integration is given in [5,11].
Figure 1
A meta-model of (UML) class diagrams
Figure 2 A class diagram artifact
Figure 3 A meta-model of use-case diagrams
Inventory agent
Restorer
?extends?
?uses?
Enter location and area data
Enter an image
Include a find into inventory
Enter a foreign find
Restore a find
?uses?
?uses?
Figure 4 A use-case diagram artifact
Figure 5 An integrated meta-model for class
and use-case diagrams
modeled concern. Nevertheless, real world software models generally also contain class units that do not represent concerns but merely are (language dependent) technical helper con-structs for implementation details.3
An ideal artifact language provides exactly one representative unit type. Since they are representing primary concerns, these units are also designated as primary units.
Analogously, the concerns modeled with use-case diagrams, namely use-cases, can be placed on a
There will always be concerns and dimensions which are not (yet) represented by their own artifacts and artifact languages. Special concerns stemming from the application domain or "on-demand" dimensions for additional user- or task-oriented views are examples for such concerns without underlying arti-facts. In our model we put such secondary concerns on their own secondary dimensions.
Being not based on artifact languages, secondary dimensions are not meta-modeled. Consequently, they are neither repre-sented in the integrated meta-model, nor does there exist any describing artifact that supplies (primary) units for them. How-ever, we can always map the units already introduced via pri-mary dimensions to the new secondary concerns they relate to. Doing so, we get additional views to the concern space. Thus, secondary dimensions provide on-demand and alternative separation of concerns along arbitrary dimensions.
3. Example: An Inventory System
After introducing basic concepts and terminology, we now show how to use the extended model by an example. We inte-grate two different design artifacts, define secondary dimen-sions for alternative views and use the integrated model to gen-erate concern-specific slices of the whole system.
The scenario is an inventory system for the State Office of Cul-tural Heritage. The mission of its archeological department is to salvage, restore, and inventory remains of former human cultures like potsherds, bones or tools. Such objects of archeo-logical relevance, the finds, are often discovered during build-ing and excavation works. The archeological department main-tains a find archive, for which an inventory system shall be de-veloped.
3.1. The Artifacts
The inventory system is described by two different artifacts: A class diagram and a use-case diagram.
Figure 2 shows a small part of the class diagram. Find, Loca-tion and Area are the main objects of interest that are stored in the inventory system. Each of them can optionally be illus-trated by Images (e.g. photos or drawings). As usual, common properties like that are extracted into an abstract base class, which is IllustratedObject here.
Figure 4 shows a part of the use-case diagram for the inventory system. The main use-case is Include a find into inventory. It
3 Application of a design pattern like Observer is a good example. In Java this is typically realized by inheritance, needing additional interfaces and helper classes. describes the process of taking a find (an object that has been found somewhere), entering its properties (material, state, es-timated age, etc.) into the system and finally storing it in the find archive. During this process it may also be necessary to restore or conserve a damaged or decaying object (Restore a find). Additionally, if not already present in the system, the lo-cation and area data where this object has been found (Enter location and area data) and related images (Enter an image) are entered.
Enter a foreign find describes a variant of Include a find into inventory where the same data is recorded. However, it is not stored in the archive, because the object itself is owned by somebody else or even not present at all.
3.2. Artifact Integration
The artifacts describe two single dimensions of concerns, namely
Every use-case of our use-case diagram models a concern on its own, but not every class from the class diagram. This is be-cause the class IllustratedObject is not a concern of our appli-cation. It is merely a technical construct to implement poly-morphic behavior and generalization.
As mentioned above, the integration of primary dimensions corresponds to the integration of the underlying artifact lan-guage meta-models. The resulting integrated meta-model has already been shown in Figure 5, it introduced a new meta-association isUsedIn that connects class units to those use-case units which utilize services of the class. Now, during artifact integration, we have to instantiate this meta-association to re-late concrete class units to concrete use-case units. In Figure 6 this is illustrated by dashed arrows between units.4
3.3. Defining Secondary Dimensions
Secondary dimensions provide additional concerns that are not based on existing artifacts.We use them here for a more user-centric view to our software system. The concerns of typical end users are usually not expressed by class- and use-case dia-grams; users do rather look at a software system in functional terms like Features and Tasks. 5
A feature is a concern of a software system that stems from the functional domain of the end user. System specifications often
4 Note that Figure 6 shows only those units that are assigned to concerns or take part in new relationships like isUsedIn which are not already present in the original artifacts. This is for legibility purposes. However, the omitted units and relationships (e.g. the class IllustratedObject and its inheritance relationships to Find, Area and Location) are considered to be still present in the concern space.
5Of course, organizing concerns on a secondary dimension is in general only second best compared to describing them by real artifacts. However, they are useful if you have not found an adequate formalism to express these concerns yet. Therefore, secondary dimensions can be seen as an indi-cator for missing artifacts or even missing artifact languages.
consist of feature lists; release cycles are driven by features to implement. Features are used by salespersons to advertise the product.
A task is an activity that is carried out by a user on an (abstract) object, e.g. enter something or print something. Therefore we understand tasks as generic processes that are instantiated on different kind of objects. In the OO world tasks are crosscut-ting concerns: While providing very good support for object similarities, OO does not help very much in design of process similarities on otherwise unrelated objects – and this leads to crosscutting. However, from a users' point of view, it is impor-tant that similar processes (e.g. entering or printing some kind of data) are represented similarly in the application’s user inter-face: They should offer a similar ‘look & feel’. As a result, we understand tasks as a concern of usability assurance.Figure 6 shows the secondary dimensions
The concern space is now an integrated, multi-paradigm design description of our inventory system, built by integration of two artifact-based primary dimensions and two additional secon-dary dimensions. (Figure 7 explains the general integration process by an activity diagram.)
Figure 6 Concern space of the inventory system
3.4. Selection of a Concern-specific Slice
We now use this integrated design description to select a con-cern-specific slice out of the whole system. By projecting this slice to the language-based dimensions, we then create concern specific artifact versions.
Consider we are using an iterative development process and want to build a minimal version of the inventory system as a first release. This minimal version should implement only the most important features, which in our case is just the one fea-ture Find data management. Which classes and use-cases have to be taken into account to implement Find data management? Because of the integrated design description of the system, we can find all relevant units by creation of a closure: Given a set C of concerns, we can compute the slice S implied by C (the closure of C) by determining the subgraph induced by all verti-ces (units and concerns) reachable from C via appropriate edges (relationships and concern mappings). This algorithm has to be instantiated appropriately according to the necessities of the respective artifact languages.
In Figure 6, the result of this algorithm is depicted in black color, while all units, concerns and relations that are omitted are colored grey. Figure 8 shows the effect of projecting the re-sulting slice on the
4.1. Hyper/J and the Hyperspace Approach
Hyper/J and the original Hyperspaces approach [3, 4, 6] can be seen as a specific instantiation of our model. Like our model, Hyper/J uses (implicitly) a meta-model (the meta-model of the Java language) and distinguishes two different types of dimen-sions. However, the meta-model of Hyper/J is hard-coded and not extendable. It is the base of the built-in
In the original Hyperspaces model, the mapping from units to concerns is realized by a concern-matrix that maps each unit to exactly one concern in each dimension. However, the implica-tion that a single unit never addresses more than one concern of a dimension does not hold for the less formal languages as used in software design6. For that reason, we gave up the idea of a matrix-like n-dimensional concern space spanned by n axes, in favor of n clusters of concerns. This metaphor allows assigning units to zero or more concerns in each dimension by relations. This structure (which is perfectly represented by a graph) al-lows an easy definition of specialized systems which support only some of the described concerns by a transitive closure ap-proach.
Another difference between the original model and our work is that we are not distinguishing between declaration units and definition units. Most design languages do not utilize the con-cepts of declaration and definition; units are typically intro-duced into the model by just naming them. Furthermore, in our model a unit can be mapped to more than one concern; thus additional declaration units are even formally not necessary. Of course, the abandonment of declarations leads to the danger that the transitive closure approach works too greedy and in-cludes too many units while extracting a concern specific slice. However, using a graph-based representation, it is not difficult to control the creation of the transitive closure with additional constraints, e.g. based on regular path expressions[11].
4.2. Approaches based on UML design integration In [7] the authors propose UMLAUT, a generic UML model and schema transformation framework [8], as a methodological base for aspect-oriented design with UML models. Like our
6 Actors in use-case diagrams, like in Figure 4, are a good example for this. Typically, an actor relates to more than one use-case. Therefore, an actor may map to more than one concern on the
Concern Integration
Figure 7 The process of concern integration Inventory agent
?extends?
Enter location
and area data
Enter a foreign find
?uses?
Include a find
into inventory
Figure 8 Projection of the concern-specific slice on the
model, their approach is based on an integrated meta-model of artifact languages. Aspect weaving and extraction of task-specific views are then driven by an extensible set of transfor-mation rules and UML tagged attributes.
ConcernBASE [9] is an approach for a UML based framework for describing software architectures. It supports MDSoC on high-level software architectures by decomposing the system into different architectural concern spaces and definition of ar-chitectural views that represent single dimensions of these con-cern spaces.
A more component-related approach for aspect-oriented design and architecture is presented in [10]. The authors divide a complex design not by dimensions, but by functional domains into possibly non-orthogonal aspects, for which an optimal lo-cal design may be developed first. Constraints for interactions and connections between the local designs are formulated by contracts that are later used for automatic composition and de-tection of conflicts.
5. Conclusion
We introduced an approach to MDSoC which generalizes the Hyperspace approach of T ARR and O SSHER. We gave up the idea of a matrix-like n-dimensional concern space spanned by n axes in favor of n clusters of concerns. This metaphor allows assigning units of artifact languages to more than one concern in each dimension. This property is not given if the metaphor of strict orthogonality is used.
We showed by an example how the Hyperspace approach is generalized to an arbitrary number of (artifact-based) primary dimensions using meta-model-based integration of artifact lan-guages.
We believe that the strong connection between the dimensional structure of the hyperspace and the artifact languages is a good basis for an assessment of the appropriateness of design de-scription languages. Ideally, each artifact language should de-fine only one dimension, if a maximal separation of concerns is to be achieved. A language defining two kinds of concerns may not separate them well enough. Each secondary dimension may be an indicator of the absence of an additional language that might be useful.
The graph view of the Hyperspace allows an easy definition of specialized systems which support only some of the described concerns by a transitive closure approach. The graph-interpre-tation of meta-models is furthermore a good foundation for de-veloping graph-based tools which support this approach to multidimensional separation of concerns in software develop-ment environments. 6. References
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Jr.:N Degrees of Separation: Multi-Dimensional Separation of Con-cerns. In Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE ′99), pp. 107-119, May 1999
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【思想汇报范文】团课思想汇报范文格式及范文
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可写，而一再要求编辑老师为他们提供采访的话题，说到底这就是一个新闻敏感的问题。 什么叫新闻敏感或新闻触角呢？简言之，它就是新闻工作者识别新闻的敏锐能力。一个具有新闻价值的事情，别人不能看出它是新闻，而你却一下就能识别它是新闻，这就是新闻敏感。没有一定的新闻触角和新闻敏感，就很难写出一篇像样的新闻稿。美国新闻学家卡斯柏.约斯特在《新闻学原理》一书中的一段话，形象的阐述了新闻敏感对于记者的重要性。他说：“一个不善于辨别色彩的人，不能成为一个画家；一个不懂得和谐的人，不能成为一个音乐家；一个没有‘新闻敏感’的人，也不能成为一个新闻记者。”(1)培养新闻触角和新闻敏感，善于发现新闻线索，就能够当事情还在“风起于清萍之末”时，就敏感地察觉到它，并预见它的去向，从而比较得心应手地写出一篇新闻稿。 当然，新闻敏感不是与生俱来的，而是记者在采访实践中不断培养训练获得的。在大学生记者群中，不乏这样的人，他们刚开始成为一名学生记者，通讯员的时候，由于都是刚刚从中学来到大学，不用说缺乏新闻触角和新闻敏感，就是基本的新闻知识也不具备。但是，他们经过一段时间的新闻工作实践，刻苦学习，勤奋笔耕，终于成为了一名有一定新闻敏感和写作能力的校园记者。
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高级英语一
北语14秋《高级英语I》导学资料一 Unit1, Unit2& Unit3 一、本阶段学习内容概述 各位同学，大家好，本课程第一阶段学习的主要内容为Unit1：Party Politics, Unit2：The New Singles, Unit3：教材课文：Doctor’s Dilemma: Treat or Let Die? 网络课件课文：Computer Violence中包括课前练习（Warm-up）、单词和词组（New words and phrases）、课文（Text）、课后练习（Exercises）及补充阅读（Supplementary readings）中的指定内容。 课前练习：大家应先了解课前练习的要求，根据已有的知识思考其中问题，或者利用网络与同学开展一些讨论，争取在阅读课文前了解文章主要论述的问题，有利于更好的了解作者的思想观点和思维过程，从而了解文章所反映的思想文化，这样既能提高阅读理解能力又能获取知识和信息。 单词和词组:名词、动词和形容词是词汇练习和记忆中的重要部分。Unit 1、2、3中所列出的新单词绝大部分都是这三类，因此，大家一定要掌握好新单词。要开发利用多种方法记单词，如联想法、音节法、构词法等。单词和词组基本上给出了英语直接释义，可以培养大家英语思维的习惯。如果在阅读释义后还有疑问，一定要查阅英语词典，寻找一些相关的解释来加深对单词的理解和记忆。许多词的释义中给出了若干同义词或近义词，能帮助大家迅速扩大词汇量，同时，课后练习的词汇（Vocabulary Study）部分又给出了一些相关的练习，大家可以在学习完单词和词组后，乘热打铁，立即做词汇练习的第一小题（选择填空）和第二小题（找出意义相近的替代词）这样可以及时巩固所学单词，大概了解这些词的用法，为正确阅读课文打下基础，也能使得练习题做起来不是那么难。 （特别说明：高级英语阶段的学习，提高词汇量和词汇运用能力是一个很大，并且很重要，同时又是比较难的问题，这是我们必须面对的问题，所以，请大家务必花时间多熟悉单词。所谓的磨刀不误砍材功，先熟悉单词和短语，才能流畅的阅读文章。更关键的是，单词和短语在考试中所占比例不少！） 课文：每单元有一篇课文（Unit1：Party Politics, Unit2：The New Singles, Unit3：教材课文：Doctor’s Dilemma: Treat or Let Die? 网络课件课文：Computer Violence）。在掌握单词和词组之后，阅读课后注释，学习课文的背景资料、作者介绍和相关内容，如人物、事件、地点等的解释，这能帮助大家准确快速的理解文章的内容。在课件资源的帮助下，认真学习课文，包括课文中常用词语和句型的用法。文章比较长，大家一定要有耐心和毅力，坚持就是胜利。在学习完整篇文章后，及时完成课文理解（Comprehension Check）的练习。其中第一小题是根据课文内容选择最佳答案，第二小题是将部分文中的句子用英语注释。只要认真学习了课件资料，相信能很快准确地完成。同时也考察大家对课文理解的程度，督促大家很好的阅读课文。 课后练习：共有四个大题。 1.课文理解（Comprehension Check）：有两个题型。在借助课件学习完课文之后，大家可以先自己做这一部分的练习，然后再看课件，对正答案的同时，再重温课文的大意。 2.词汇（Vocabulary Study）：有两个题型。在学完课文和单词后，大家可以自己先做这一部分的词汇练习，不会做得可以看课件，并牢固掌握，对于补充的单词也要掌握。这样有利于快速扩充词汇量。 3.翻译（Translation）：有的单元是汉译英，有的单元是英译汉。都是一段与课文内容相近的短文。先认真思考，仔细看文章，如果有一定的难度，可以参考课件的解说，然后再组织语言完成翻译练习。
翻译中的归化与异化
“异化”与“归化”之间的关系并评述 1、什么是归化与异化 归化”与“异化”是翻译中常面临的两种选择。钱锺书相应地称这两种情形叫“汉化”与“欧化”。A．归化 所谓“归化”（domestication 或target-language-orientedness），是指在翻译过程中尽可能用本民族的方式去表现外来的作品；归化翻译法旨在尽量减少译文中的异国情调，为目的语读者提供一种自然流畅的译文。Venuti 认为，归化法源于这一著名翻译论说，“尽量不干扰读者，请作者向读者靠近” 归化翻译法通常包含以下几个步骤：（1）谨慎地选择适合于归化翻译的文本；（2）有意识地采取一种自然流畅的目的语文体；（3）把译文调整成目的语篇体裁；（4）插入解释性资料；（5）删去原文中的实观材料；（6）调协译文和原文中的观念与特征。 B．“异化”（foreignization或source-language-orientedness）则相反，认为既然是翻译，就得译出外国的味儿。异化是根据既定的语法规则按字面意思将和源语文化紧密相连的短语或句子译成目标语。例如，将“九牛二虎之力”译为“the strength of nine bulls and two tigers”。异化能够很好地保留和传递原文的文化内涵，使译文具有异国情调，有利于各国文化的交流。但对于不熟悉源语及其文化的读者来说，存在一定的理解困难。随着各国文化交流愈来愈紧密，原先对于目标语读者很陌生的词句也会变得越来越普遍，即异化的程度会逐步降低。 Rome was not built in a day. 归化:冰冻三尺,非一日之寒. 异化:罗马不是一天建成的. 冰冻三尺,非一日之寒 异化:Rome was not built in a day. 归化:the thick ice is not formed in a day. 2、归化异化与直译意译 归化和异化，一个要求“接近读者”，一个要求“接近作者”，具有较强的界定性；相比之下，直译和意译则比较偏重“形式”上的自由与不自由。有的文中把归化等同于意译，异化等同于直译，这样做其实不够科学。归化和异化其实是在忠实地传达原作“说了什么”的基础之上，对是否尽可能展示原作是“怎么说”，是否最大限度地再现原作在语言文化上的特有风味上采取的不同态度。两对术语相比，归化和异化更多地是有关文化的问题，即是否要保持原作洋味的问题。 3、不同层面上的归化与异化 1、句式 翻译中“归化”表现在把原文的句式（syntactical structure）按照中文的习惯句式译出。
高级英语写作1-10课翻译
高级英语写作1-10课翻译
The Delicate Art of the Forest 库珀的创造天分并不怎么样；但是他似乎热衷于此并沾沾自喜。确实，他做了一些令人感到愉快的事情。在小小的道具箱内，他为笔下的森林猎人和土人准备了七八种诡计或圈套，这些人以此诱骗对方。利用这些幼稚的技巧达到了预期的效果，没有什么更让他高兴得了。其中一个就是他最喜欢的，就是让一个穿着鹿皮靴的人踩着穿着鹿皮靴敌人的脚印，借以隐藏了自己行踪。这么做使库珀磨烂不知多少桶鹿皮靴。他常用的另一个道具是断树枝。他认为断树枝效果最好，因此不遗余力地使用。在他的小说中，如果哪章中没有人踩到断树枝惊着两百码外的印第安人和白人，那么这一节则非常平静/那就谢天谢地了。每次库珀笔下的人物陷入危险，每分钟绝对安静的价格是4美元/一分静一分金，这个人肯定会踩到断树枝。尽管附近有上百种东西可以踩，但这都不足以使库珀称心。他会让这个人找一根干树枝；如果找不到，就去借一根。事实上，《皮袜子故事系列丛书》应该叫做《断树枝故事集》。 很遗憾，我没有足够的篇幅，写上几十个例子，看看奈迪·班波和其他库伯专家们是怎样运用他的森林中的高招。大概我们可以试着斗胆举它两三个例子。库伯曾经航过海—当过海军军官。但是他却一本正经/煞有介事地告诉我们，一条被风刮向海岸遇险的船，被船长驶向一个有离岸暗流的地点而得救。因为暗流顶着风，把船冲了回来。看看这森林术，这行船术，或者叫别的什么术，很高明吧？库珀在炮兵部队里待过几年，他应该注意到炮弹落到地上时，要么爆炸，要么弹起来，跳起百英尺，再弹再跳，直到跳不动了滚几下。现在某个地方他让几个女性—他总是这么称呼女的—在一个迷雾重重的夜晚，迷失在平原附近一片树林边上—目的是让班波有机会向读者展示他在森林中的本事。这些迷路的人正在寻找一个城堡。他们听到一声炮响，接着一发炮弹就滚进树林，停在他们脚下。对女性，这毫无价值。但对可敬的班波就完全不同了。我想，如果班波要是不马上冲出来，跟着弹痕，穿过浓雾，跨过平原，找到要塞，我就再也不知道什么是“和平”了。是不是非常聪明？如果库伯不是对自然规律一无所知，他就是故意隐瞒事实。比方说，他的精明的印地安专家之一，名叫芝稼哥（我想，该读作芝加哥）的，跟踪一个人，在穿过树林的时候，脚印就找不到了。很明显，脚印是再也没法找到了。无论你还是我，都猜不出，怎么会
积极分子思想汇报书写格式
积极分子思想汇报书写格式 要求入党的积极分子应当经常向党组织汇报自己的思想，这对入党积极分子来说，是增强组织观念，主动争取党组织教育帮助的需要。对党组织来说，则是及时了解入党积极分子的思想、工作等情况，加强对他们培养、教育的需要。思想汇报可分为口头汇报和书面汇报。口头汇报是要求入党的同志面对面地向党组织进行汇报;而书面汇报则是常用的形式。 一、书写格式和内容 标题：一般在第一行居中写“思想汇报”。 2. 称谓：一般在第二行顶格写“敬爱的党支部”或“敬爱的党组织”，后面加冒号。 3. 正文：这是思想汇报的主要部分，一般写以下内容： ①对当前和一个时期党的一个时期党的中心任务或党的路线、方针、政策的看法、态度，阐明自己的观点，写清楚自己的认识或自己还有什么疑虑和理解不清楚的问题等。 ②参加重要活动或学习重要文章、文件所受的启发、教育和体会，把自己的认识、体会和收获向党组织汇报。 ③本人在政治、思想、学习、工作、作风等方面的主要表现情况。
④对照党员的标准，找出存在问题及今后的努力方向，表明自己要求进步的决心和信心。 4. 结尾：在思想汇报的最后部分，可写上自己对党组织的请求和希望，一般用“恳请党组织给予批评、帮助”或“希望党组织加强对我的培养和教育”等作为结束语。 5.落款：在结尾的右下方要写上汇报人的姓名，并注明汇报的年月日。 二、写思想汇报应注意的问题 一定要汇报自己的真实思想，自己怎么想的就怎么汇报。 2.一定要言之有物，不能光讲大道理，也不要追求文章写得好而硬凑材料。 3.一定要及时，汇报的一定要是自己最新的思想动态。 4.要注意汇报后的反馈，对党组织根据自己汇报反馈的给自己的意见一定要认真对待，并在今后的学习工作中很好的落实。 2018年入党积极分子思想汇报范文精选 尊敬的党组织： 经过近一段时间的自己学习和党员的帮助，本人在思想上积极要求上进，在工作中向党员同志看齐，对党的认识更加深刻。现将本人近期思想情况汇报 第一，要提高学习马克思主义理论的自觉性。 认真学习马克思列宁主义、邓小平理论，是党章规定的共产党员义务的第一条。共产党员必须懂得：理论上的成熟是政治上
翻译的归化与异化
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翻译的归化与异化 作者：熊启煦 作者单位：西南民族大学,四川,成都,610041 刊名： 西南民族大学学报（人文社科版） 英文刊名：JOURNAL OF SOUTHWEST UNIVERSITY FOR NATIONALITIES（HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCE） 年，卷(期)：2005,26(8) 被引用次数：14次 参考文献(3条) 1.鲁迅且介亭杂文二集·题未定草 2.刘英凯归化--翻译的歧路 3.钱钟书林纾的翻译 引证文献(15条) 1.郭锋一小议英语翻译当中的信达雅[期刊论文]-青春岁月 2011(4) 2.许丽红论汉英语言中的文化差异与翻译策略[期刊论文]-考试周刊 2010(7) 3.王笑东浅谈汉英语言中的差异与翻译方法[期刊论文]-中国校外教育（理论） 2010(6) 4.王宁中西语言中的文化差异与翻译[期刊论文]-中国科技纵横 2010(12) 5.鲍勤.陈利平英语隐喻类型及翻译策略[期刊论文]-云南农业大学学报(社会科学版) 2010(2) 6.罗琴.宋海林浅谈汉英语言中的文化差异及翻译策略[期刊论文]-内江师范学院学报 2010(z2) 7.白蓝跨文化视野下文学作品的英译策略[期刊论文]-湖南社会科学 2009(5) 8.王梦颖探析汉英语言中的文化差异与翻译策略[期刊论文]-中国校外教育（理论） 2009(8) 9.常晖英汉成语跨文化翻译策略[期刊论文]-河北理工大学学报（社会科学版） 2009(1) 10.常晖对翻译文化建构的几点思考[期刊论文]-牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版） 2009(4) 11.常晖认知——功能视角下隐喻的汉译策略[期刊论文]-外语与外语教学 2008(11) 12.赵勇刚汉英语言中的文化差异与翻译策略[期刊论文]-时代文学 2008(6) 13.常晖.胡渝镛从文化角度看文学作品的翻译[期刊论文]-重庆工学院学报(社会科学版) 2008(7) 14.曾凤英从文化认知的视角谈英语隐喻的翻译[期刊论文]-各界 2007(6) 15.罗琴.宋海林浅谈汉英语言中的文化差异及翻译策略[期刊论文]-内江师范学院学报 2010(z2) 本文链接：https://www.docsj.com/doc/cc8979050.html,/Periodical_xnmzxyxb-zxshkxb200508090.aspx
英语专业(高级翻译)简介
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