Epoxidized Soybean Oil as a Potential Source of High-temperature Lubricants
Industrial Crops and Products 15(2002)247–254
Epoxidized soybean oil as a potential source of
high-temperature lubricants
A.Adhvaryu a,b ,S.Z.Erhan b,*
a
Department of Chemical Engineering ,Pennsyl 6ania State Uni 6ersity ,Uni 6ersity Park ,PA 16802,USA
b
Food and Industrial Oil Research ,USDA /NCAUR /ARS ,Uni 6ersity St .Peoria ,1815N ,Peoria ,IL 61604,USA
Received 5December 2000;accepted 18December 2001
Abstract
Development and application of biocompatible lubricants are increasing daily as a result of stringent regulations imposed on mineral oil-based lubricants with their non-biodegradable toxic wastes.Before consumer acceptance of vegetable oil-based lubricants,they must overcome certain poor performance characteristics such as thermal and oxidative instabilities.This work demonstrates the improved performance of epoxidized soybean oil (ESBO)over soybean oil (SBO)and genetically modi?ed high oleic soybean oil (HOSBO)in certain high temperature lubricant application.We validated the thermal and deposit forming tendencies of these oils using micro-oxidation and differential scanning calorimetry in conjunction with identi?cation of oxidized products by infrared spectroscopy and also discussed the function of a phenolic antioxidant in these oils.Boundary lubrication properties under high load and low speed were determined and the variations explained based on the structural differences of these vegetable oils.Published by Elsevier Science B.V.
Keywords :Vegetable oils;Epoxidized soybean oil;Oxidation;Lubricants;Boundary lubrication
https://www.docsj.com/doc/c48715874.html, /locate /indcrop
1.Introduction
A steady increase in the use of eco-friendly consumer products like lubricants has occurred as a result of strict government regulations and in-creasing public concern for a pollution-free envi-ronment.In North America alone,during the last two decades,several billion dollars have been spent to clean up accidental oil spills.Some min-eral oil-based lubricants,due to their inherent toxicity and non-biodegradable nature pose a constant threat to ecology and vast ground water reserves.These concerns have resulted in increas-ing interest in vegetable oils that can be substi-tuted for mineral oil-based products in certain applications.Vegetable oils are renewable raw materials that possess certain excellent frictional properties e.g.good lubricity,low volatility,high
Names are necessary to report factually on available data;however,the USDA neither guarantees nor warrants the stan-dard of the product,and the use of the name by USDA implies no approval of the product to the exclusion of others that may also be suitable.
*Corresponding author.Tel.:+1-309-681-6532;fax:+1-309-681-6340.
E -mail address :erhansz@https://www.docsj.com/doc/c48715874.html, (S.Z.Erhan).
0926-6690/02/$-see front matter.Published by Elsevier Science B.V.PII:S 0926-6690(01)00120-0
A.Adh6aryu,S.Z.Erhan/Industrial Crops and Products15(2002)247–254 248
viscosity index,solvency for lubricant additives, and easy miscibility with other?uids,etc.How-ever,a high degree of multiple C–C unsaturations in the fatty acid(FA)chain of many vegetable oils causes poor thermal and oxidative stability and con?nes their use as lubricants to a modest range of temperature.Several reports in the literature (Randles and Wright,1992;Asadauskas et al., 1996;Wu et al.,2000)claim the use of vegetable oils such as rapeseed oil,sun?ower oil as substi-tutes for petroleum based lubricating oil and syn-thetic esters.Attempts have been made to improve the oxidative stability by transesteri?cation of trimethylolpropane and rapeseed oil methyl ester (Uosukainen et al.,1998)and by selective hydro-genation of polyunsaturated C C bonds of the FA chains(Johansson and Lundin,1979).Reports have discussed the use of epoxidized unsaturated FA as metal working?uids(Watanabe et al.,1988) and epoxy oils as lubricating additives to eliminate corrosion from chlorine containing compounds (Tao et al.,1996).Esters of dicarboxylic acids with branching have been used as lubricants and hy-draulic?uids over a wide range of temperature (Kenneth et al.,1977;Kadesch,1979).
In this paper,we explored the effectiveness of using epoxidized soybean oil(ESBO)in certain high temperature lubricant applications.The ESBO results are compared with soybean oil (SBO)and high oleic soybean oil(HOSBO).Soy-bean oils with a high oleic content obtained by genetic modi?cation of SBO have shown consider-able improvement in thermal and oxidative stabil-ity over SBO.This is primarily due to the elimination of multiple conjugated unsaturations in the FA chain of SBO.A signi?cantly higher performance level compared with HOSBO was achieved using ESBO in certain high-temperature lubricant applications.
2.Materials and methods
2.1.Materials
Soybean oil was obtained from Pioneer High Bred Intl.Inc.,Des Moines,IA;high oleic soybean oil from Optimum Inc.(Urbandale,IA)and epox-idized soybean oil from Elf Atochem,Blooming Prairie,MN.The oils were used as received com-mercially without any further puri?cation and processing.
2.2.Antioxidant
The antioxidant is an alkylated phenolic com-pound(Product code:Lubrizol?7652)from Lu-brizol,Wickliffe,OH.It was blended into the vegetable oils at40°C in various concentrations (0.5,1.0,1.5and2.0wt.%).
2.3.Thin?lm micro oxidation(TFMO)
A small amount of oil(25m l)was oxidized as a thin?lm on a freshly polished high carbon steel catalyst surface with a steady?ow(20cm3min?1) of dry air.Oxidation tests were done at various temperatures(175,200,225,250and275°C)and time lengths(30,60,90,120and150min)inside a bottomless glass reactor.The temperature was maintained at91°C with a heated aluminum slab placed on top of a hot plate.This arrangement eliminates temperature gradient across the alu-minum surface and transferred heat to the catalysts placed on the slab.The constant air?ow ensured removal of volatile oxidation products.The test was designed to eliminate any gas diffusion limita-tion.
After oxidation,the catalyst containing the oxi-dized oil sample was removed from the oxidation chamber and cooled rapidly under a steady?ow of dry N2and transferred to a desiccator for temper-ature equilibration.After approximately2h,the catalyst containing the oxidized oil was weighed to determine the volatile loss(or gain)due to oxida-tion and then soaked(30min)with tetrahydro-furan(THF)to dissolve the soluble portion of the oxidized oil.After dissolving the soluble portion of the oxidized oil,the catalyst was dried and weighed to determine the remaining insoluble deposit. 2.4.Pressurized differential scanning calorimetry (PDSC)
The experiments were carried out using a PC controlled DSC2910thermal analyzer from TA
A.Adh6aryu,S.Z.Erhan/Industrial Crops and Products15(2002)247–254249
Instruments(New Castle,USA).The instrument has a maximum sensitivity of5mV cm?1and temperature sensitivity of0.2mV cm?1.A1.5–2.0 mg sample was placed in a hermetically sealed type aluminum pan with a pinhole lid for interaction of the sample with the reactant gas(dry air).The controlled diffusion of the gas through the hole greatly restricts the volatilization of the oil while still allowing for saturation of the liquid phase with air.A?lm thickness of less than1mm was required to ensure proper oil–air interaction and to elimi-nate any discrepancy in the result due to gas diffusion limitations.The module was?rst temper-ature calibrated using the melting point of indium metal(156.6°C)at10°C min?1heating rate.Dry air was pressurized in the module at a constant pressure of3450kPa and a scanning rate of10°C min?1was used throughout the experiment.The peak height(T p)and onset(T o)temperatures were calculated from the exotherm in each case.Induc-tion time(I t)was measured for oils containing different additive concentrations(an alkylated phenolic antioxidant;0.5–2.0wt.%)using an isothermal scanning rate.
2.5.Nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR) Quantitative1H and13C NMR spectra were recorded on a Bruker ARX-400spectrometer (Bruker,Rheinstetten,Germany)at frequencies of 400and100MHz,respectively using a5mm dual probe.For the1H and13C experiments,sample solutions were prepared in deuterated chloroform (CDCl3,99.8%D)in15and30%v/v concentra-tions,respectively.Proton NMR spectra were ob-tained on16repeated scans using a30°pulse angle, pulse width of12.7m s,pulse interval of1s and acquisition time of6.8s.For the distorsionless enhancement by polarization transfer(DEPT135) measurements,similar sample concentration as the 13C experiment was maintained.This technique was used to identify and compute the relative distribution of CH n(n=0–3)carbons in the oils.
2.6.Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
Infrared spectra were recorded on a Perkin–Elmer Spectrum RX FT-IR system(Beacons?eld, England)equipped with a KBr beam splitter.A regular scanning range of400–4000cm?1was used for16repeated scans at a spectral resolution of4cm?1in thin?lm condition using a pair of KBr crystals.All the spectra were recorded and processed using the Perkin–Elmer data processing software.
2.7.Friction measurement by ball-on-disk method Boundary lubrication properties of SBO, HOSBO and ESBO were studied using a multi-specimen friction measurement apparatus of FALEX(Sugar Grove,IL).Ball-on-disk experi-ments(1018steel disk,Rc15–25)were carried out under low speed6.22mm s?1(5rpm)and high load181.44kg at25°C using test oils diluted to different concentrations with hexadecane.Mea-surements of coef?cient of friction(CoF)and torque were made in each case.The CoF values reported are averages of two or three independent experiments and the standard deviation observed was90.02.
3.Results and discussion
The physicochemical properties of SBO, HOSBO and ESBO are presented in Table1.The viscosity of ESBO at40°C is signi?cantly larger than the other oils.The higher molecular weight and more polar structure compared with SBO and HOSBO results in stronger intermolecular interac-tion in ESBO.This property of ESBO would translate into enhanced lubricity in a dynamic system.The data indicate that nearly entire C C unsaturation in FA chain have been converted to epoxy group.These properties will cumulatively in?uence the thermal and oxidative behavior of ESBO.
A partial proton NMR spectrum of ESBO is shown in Fig.1.The C C unsaturation present in SBO(normally at5.2ppm)is largely replaced with the epoxy group of ESBO.The peak assign-ments were made using DEPT135and COSY45 NMR experiments.The epoxy protons are ob-served in the l3.0–3.2ppm region.The methine
A .Adh 6aryu ,S .Z .Erhan /Industrial Crops and Products 15(2002)247–254
250Table 1
The physical properties of vegetable oils Vegetable oils Properties
HOSBO ESBO SBO
Appearance
Light yellow Pale yellow Colorless 41.34170.85Kinematic viscosity,cSt (ASTM D445)a at 40°C 32.939.028.0820.41Kinematic viscosity,cSt (ASTM D445)a at 100°C 0.12Acid value (mg KOH g ?1)(AOCS,Ca 5a-40)b 0.090.16 4.789.760.0Peroxide value (meq.kg ?1)(AOCS,Cd 8–53)b 144.8Iodine value (mg I 2g ?1)(AOCS,Cd 1–25)b
85.99.11Fatty acid composition by GC (AACC,58–18)c in %C 16:0 6.0 6.070.03.030.0d C 18:0 5.585.022.00.0C 18:1 4.0C 18:20.066.0 2.0
0.5
0.0
C 18:3
a ASTM D-445,annual book of ASTM standards,vol.05.01,2000.
b
Of ?cial methods and recommended practices of the AOCS,5th edition,1998.c
Approved methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists,10th edition,vol.II,2000.d
Obtained from the epoxidation of C 18:1,C 18:2and C 18:3.
proton of CH 2 C H CH 2 backbone at l 5.1–5.3ppm,methylene proton of C H 2 CH C H 2back-bone at l 4.0–4.4ppm,C H 2proton adjacent to two epoxy group at l 2.8–3.0ppm, C H pro-tons of the epoxy ring at l 3.0–3.2ppm,h -C H 2to C O at l 2.2–2.4ppm,h -C H 2to epoxy group at 1.7–1.9ppm,i -C H 2to C O at l 1.55–1.7ppm,i -C H 2to epoxy group at l 1.4–1.55ppm,saturated methylene groups at l 1.1–1.4ppm and terminal C H 3groups at l 0.8–1.0ppm region.The ole ?n and bisallylic protons in SBO and HOSBO have high susceptibility to thermal and oxidative degradation.The pro-tons associated with these carbon atoms are highly labile and trigger radical initiated oxidation in the presence of oxygen at these sites.The removal of these reactive protons in ESBO would suggest an enhanced oxidative stability in these oils.
ESBO shows a characteristic peak at 823cm ?1from the epoxy group (Fig.2).The other peaks observed from the partial FTIR spectra are:723(methylene in-phase rocking),957,1017,1105(ether,antisymmetric stretch),1163,1239(ester,antisymmetric stretch),1378(methyl symmetric
deformation),1463(methyl antisymmetric defor-mation)and 1745(esters,aliphatic C O stretch)cm ?1.The spectra obtained for SBO and HOSBO are similar to ESBO except for the absorption due to the epoxy group.
The deposit values obtained from thin ?lm micro oxidation (TFMO)at 175°C at different time intervals are shown in Fig. 3.The tests,carried out in static mode under a steady ?ow of air (20ml min ?1)in a bottomless glass reactor,were terminated and analyzed at the indicated times.After the stipulated test time,the oxidized
Fig.1.Partial 1H NMR spectra of epoxidized soybean oil (ESBO).
A .Adh 6aryu ,S .Z .Erhan /Industrial Crops and Products 15(2002)247–254251
Fig.2.Overlay infrared transmittance spectra of SBO (—);HOSBO (···)and ESBO (---)showing the position of major peaks.
oil was washed with THF and the residue left on the coupon is termed as insoluble deposit.During the oxidation process,several primary oxidation products are formed,which later in the presence of excess O 2undergo further oxy-polymerization reaction to form oil insoluble deposit (Adhvaryu et al.,2000).The tendency to form such deposit is the main detrimental factor associated with veg-etable oil used as high-temperature lubricants.The relative in ?uence of various structural parameters of vegetable oils during oxidation is described in a separate study (Adhvaryu et al.,2000).The data of Fig.3shows that ESBO re-mains fairly stable.No signi ?cant oxidative degra-dation occurs until after 60min into the oxidation.The following sharp increase in the deposit formation suggests a rapid breakdown of the epoxy group leading to oxidative polymeriza-tion through oxygen bonding.The induction time for deposit formation of ESBO is roughly twice that of HOSBO under similar oxidation tempera-ture (175°C).The percent insoluble deposit be-comes stable after 2h of oxidation with ESBO remaining lower compared with other https://www.docsj.com/doc/c48715874.html,rger insoluble deposit observed in SBO and HOSBO at different time periods compared with ESBO,is
mainly due to their linoleic and oleic content in the FA chains (see Table 1).SBO shows greater deposit primarily than HOSBO due to the pres-ence of conjugated unsaturation in the FA chain relative to HOSBO.
The partial FTIR spectra of the carbonyl re-gion of oxidized SBO,HOSBO and ESBO,after 90min test shows that such oxidation process results in the formation of a broad carbonyl en-velop in the FTIR spectra due to an array of closely spaced oxygenated carbonyl compounds
Fig.3.Percent insoluble deposit of SBO,HOSBO and ESBO obtained from TFMO at 175°C under air ?ow (20ml min ?1);sample size =25m l.
A .Adh 6aryu ,S .Z .Erhan /Industrial Crops and Products 15(2002)247–254
252Fig. 4.Partial FTIR absorbance spectra of oxidized SBO,HOSBO and ESBO showing the position of different func-tional groups in the carbonyl region.
sorption peak at 1717cm ?1due to ketone func-tionality is prominent in all the oxidized oils with varying intensity.Another peak at 1735cm ?1from cyclic lactones (mainly 6member)makes a shoulder with the absorption peak at 1741cm ?1from peroxy ester groups.The formation of these oxy-compounds is due to radical initiated oxida-tion reaction in presence of O 2.Several other studies have reported the formation of cyclic structures during oxidation (Naidu et al.,1984;Adhvaryu et al.,1998).These compounds form the precursors of high temperature polymeric de-posits associated with vegetable oil oxidation.PDSC is an effective way of measuring the oxidative tendency of vegetable oils in an acceler-ated mode.At high air pressure (3450kPa),the concentration of O 2is in excess and at equilibrium with the sample.Thus,any inconsistency due to access rate of oxygen and egress rate of volatile degradation product is effectively eliminated.The exothermic plot of SBO,HOSBO and ESBO at a scanning rate of 10°C min ?1under constant pressure is shown in Fig.5.The peak temperature (T p )and onset temperature (T o )combination of these oils are SBO =180.3/167.8,HOSBO =201.1/185.8and ESBO =214.9/188.1°C.The ESBO shows high oxidative stability compared with SBO and HOSBO.The TFMO and FTIR data also show similar results.
The effects of an antioxidant additive on the T p and T o of vegetable oils are listed in Table 2.ESBO showed maximum improvement in oxida-tive stability at the lower additive concentration (0.5wt.%)followed by HOSBO and SBO.A plateau was reached at higher additive concentra-tion (1.5wt.%)and no concentration beyond this had any improvement in oxidation stability.
Fig.5.Exothermic plots of SBO,HOSBO and ESBO at a scanning rate of 10°C min ?1under constant pressure (3450kPa).
(Fig.4).In the spectral range of 1800–1650cm ?1,three characteristic absorbance peaks are present at 1717,1735and 1741cm ?1.The ab-
Table 2
PDSC of vegetable oils at different antioxidant concentrations:scanning rate =10°C min ?1,constant pressure =2450kPa 2.0%AO 0.5%AO Vegetable oils
1.5%AO 1.0%AO T p (°C)T o (°C)T p (°C)T o (°C)T p (°C)T o (°C)T p (°C)
T o (°C)SBO 194.3190.3183.6197.8188.5199.6190.8178.9220.5211.7225.6HOSBO 217.2213.6229.9221.7203.3243.3
256.0
264.0
254.9
262.9
252.3
251.3
259.9
ESBO
T p and T o values are averages of three independent experiments.Standard error =91°C.
A.Adh6aryu,S.Z.Erhan/Industrial Crops and Products15(2002)247–254253 Table3
Oxidation induction time(I t)(isothermal condition)of vegetable oils at different antioxidant additive concentrations:constant pressure=2450kPa
0.5%AO time(min) 1.0%AO time(min) 1.5%AO time(min) 2.0%AO time(min)
12.8190.7
SBO(150°C)a17.4490.5
7.8490.623.0390.8
HOSBO(160°C)a28.7490.857.3591.388.9391.7127.1292.2
76.8491.886.4791.589.8591.6
ESBO(195°C)a52.2491.0
AO,antioxidant(an alkylated phenolic compound);I t values are averages of three independent experiments.
a Isothermal temperature.
Similarly,for oxidation induction time(I t)mea-
surement under isothermal condition(Table3),
ESBO(at195°C)showed greater stability as
compared with SBO(at150°C)and HOSBO(at
160°C).The induction time data shows that the
isothermal temperature for the oxidation of ESBO
is signi?cantly higher than HOSBO.The ESBO is
run at an isothermal temperature35°C higher
than the HOSBO.This suggests stability signi?-
cantly higher for ESBO than HOSBO by a factor
of6or more.The trend is in agreement with the
deposit forming tendencies(Fig.3).PDSC there-
fore can,be used effectively to optimize the addi-
tive concentration in vegetable oil blends and
rapidly assay their thermal and oxidative
behavior.
Vegetable oils are known to provide excellent
lubricity due to their ester functionality(Steren,
1989).The polar heads of the fatty acid chains
attach to metal surfaces by a chemical process
that allows a monolayer?lm formation with the
non-polar end of fatty acids sticking away from
the metal surface.The fatty acid CH2 chain offers a sliding surface that prevents the partici-
pating metal from making direct contact with
each other.When a?lm is not formed,contact
may result in rising temperature at the contact
zones of moving parts causing adhesion,scuf?ng
or even metal-to-metal welding.During this rub-
bing process under lubricated condition,at high
load and low speed,bond cleavage of fatty acid
molecule might take place.Under such condition,
the epoxy group of the ESBO offers active oxygen
sites that trigger polymerization on the metal
surface forming a protective?lm.This protective
?lm builds further with time to reduce friction.
The CoF data of ball-on-disk experiment of veg-etable oils blended into hexadecane in different molar concentration is shown in Table4.Under a high load of181.44kg and low speed6.22mm s?1(5rpm),all of the vegetable oils show excel-lent reduction in CoF at low molar concentration.
4.Conclusions
This study offers a detailed insight about the thermal,oxidative and frictional behavior of ESBO as a potential candidate for high tempera-ture lubrication.The deposit-forming tendency of ESBO is signi?cantly reduced due to the removal of multiple unsaturations in fatty acid chains. ESBO shows good response to antioxidant addi-tives at low concentration(1%)and maintains a Table4
Coef?cient of friction values of vegetable oils in different concentrations of hexadecane
Concentration(M)Coef?cient of friction
ESBO
SBO HOSBO
0.2690.232 0.0030.248
0.220
0.221
0.0040.243
0.2050.171 0.0050.223
0.0070.165
0.190
0.203
0.1630.144
0.171
0.01
0.1320.104
0.135
0.03
0.095
0.10.1080.102 0.20.102
0.100
0.092
0.092
0.40.1000.100 0.60.0900.100
0.090
Load=181.44kg and speed=6.22mm min?1at25°C.CoF values are averages of two or three independent experiments. Standard deviation=90.02.
A.Adh6aryu,S.Z.Erhan/Industrial Crops and Products15(2002)247–254 254
low thermal and oxidative behavior compared with other test oils.Further,ESBO,SBO and HOSBO have excellent coef?cient of friction re-ducing properties due to the formation of a stable polymeric?lm on the metal surface during boundary lubrication.Such?lm formation in ESBO is achieved through the O cross linking on the metal surface,and thus reducing friction between the moving parts.
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旅游与文化 翻译
旅游与文化I Part I 1．charming autumn scenery in a most fresh air and clear weather 秋高气爽，秋色宜人 2．the 15th General Assembly Session of the World Tourism Organization 世界旅游组织第15届全体大会3．to travel ten thousand li and read ten thousand books 读万卷书，行万里路 4．enriching themselves mentally and physically 承天地之灵气，接山水之精华 5．tourist arrival 旅游人数 6．foreign currency receipts 外汇收入 7．outbound tourists 出境旅游人数 8．unique, rich and varied tourism resources 得天独厚的旅游资源 9．World Cultural and Natural Heritages sites 世界文化遗产地和世界自然遗产地 10．t o add radiance and charm to each other 交相辉映 11．a thriving modern metropolis 繁华的现代化大都市 12．a patchwork of cottages 村舍星罗棋布 13．t o exist side by side 鳞次栉比 14．I nternational Architecture Exhibition 万国建筑博览会 15．c lock towers and turrets , marble pillars 钟塔、角楼和大理石柱 16．e ach representing a distinctively individual appearance 风格迥异，各领风骚 17．t he rainy season 梅雨季节 18．t o linger longer 留连忘返 19．e xcellence, elegance and the best quality 卓越超群，富丽堂皇，一流质量 20．e mbroidery, inlaid lacquer 刺绣，金漆镶嵌 21．g old and silver jewelleries, water-color woodblock prints 金银首饰，木刻水印 22．c arvings in jade, ivory, bamboo and woven bamboo baskets 玉雕、牙雕，竹雕，竹编筐篮 23．b ird cages, lanterns 鸟笼灯笼 24．d ouble-sided embroidery and sandal wood fans from Suzhou 双面绣和苏州的檀香扇 25．t erracotta teapots from Yixing, and clay figures from Wuxi 宜兴的陶制茶壶和无锡的泥人 26．t he Peach Blossom Fair 桃花节 27．t he Daci Temple Fair 大慈寺庙会 28．t he Chengdu Tourism Festival 成都旅游节 29．a place blessed with favorite climate, fertile land, rich resources and outstanding talents 物华天宝，人杰地灵30．s uperb artistic style of aiming at catching the sprit of the landscape 写意山水 31．a rtistic gems 艺术瑰宝 32．U NESCO Heritage Committee 联合国教科文组织遗产委员会 33．t he list of World cultural heritage 世界文化遗产名录 34．b ronzeware 青铜器 35．b amboo, wood and lacquer ware 竹木漆器 36．i nscribed bones and tortoise shells 甲骨 37．s eals 玺印 38．a rchaeology 39．r estoration room 文物修复馆 旅游与文化II Part II景点描述常用语 Match work: 雄伟壮丽imposing 灯火辉煌glittering
英美文学专业开题报告
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初中语文古文赏析曹操《短歌行》赏析(林庚)
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完善版美国文学期末重点
2014 Final Exam Study Guide for American Literature Class Plan of Final Exam 1.Best Choice Question 10% 2.True or False Question 10% 3.Definition 10% 4.Give Brief Answers to Questions 30% 5.Critical Comments 40% American Literature Review Poe’s Poetic Ideas; Major Ideas in Emerson’s “Nature”; Whitman’s Style; Formal Features of Dickinson’s Poetry; Analysis of “Miniver Cheevy” by Edwin Arlington Robinson; Comment on “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost; Naturalistic reading of Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser; The Theme and Techniques in Eliot’s “The Waste Land”; Theme and Technique in The Great Gatsby by Fitzgerald; Comment on Hemingway’s style and theme in A Farewell to Arms; Analysis of “Dry September” by William Faulkner; Literary terms: Transcendentalism American Naturalism The Lost Generation The Jazz Age Free Verse The Iceberg Analogy
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一般过去式 时间状语：yesterday just now (刚刚) the day before three days ag0 a week ago in 1880 last month last year 1. I was in the classroom yesterday. I was not in the classroom yesterday. Were you in the classroom yesterday. 2. They went to see the film the day before. Did they go to see the film the day before. They did go to see the film the day before. 3. The man beat his wife yesterday. The man didn’t beat his wife yesterday. 4. I was a high student three years ago. 5. She became a teacher in 2009. 6. They began to study english a week ago 7. My mother brought a book from Canada last year. 8.My parents build a house to me four years ago . 9.He was husband ago. She was a cooker last mouth. My father was in the Xinjiang half a year ago. 10.My grandfather was a famer six years ago. 11.He burned in 1991
高中语文文言文曹操《短歌行(对酒当歌)》原文、翻译、赏析
曹操《短歌行【对酒当歌】》原文、翻译、赏析译文 原文 面对美酒应该高歌，人生短促日月如梭。对酒当歌，人生几何？ 好比晨露转瞬即逝，失去的时日实在太多！譬如朝露，去日苦多。 席上歌声激昂慷慨，忧郁长久填满心窝。慨当以慷，忧思难忘。 靠什么来排解忧闷？唯有狂饮方可解脱。何以解忧？唯有杜康。 那穿着青领（周代学士的服装）的学子哟，你们令我朝夕思慕。青青子衿，悠悠我心。 正是因为你们的缘故，我一直低唱着《子衿》歌。但为君故，沉吟至今。 阳光下鹿群呦呦欢鸣，悠然自得啃食在绿坡。呦呦鹿鸣，食野之苹。 一旦四方贤才光临舍下，我将奏瑟吹笙宴请宾客。我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙。 当空悬挂的皓月哟，你运转着，永不停止；明明如月，何时可掇？ 我久蓄于怀的忧愤哟，突然喷涌而出汇成长河。忧从中来，不可断绝。 远方宾客踏着田间小路，一个个屈驾前来探望我。越陌度阡，枉用相存。 彼此久别重逢谈心宴饮，争着将往日的情谊诉说。契阔谈讌，心念旧恩。 明月升起，星星闪烁，一群寻巢乌鹊向南飞去。月明星稀，乌鹊南飞。 绕树飞了三周却没敛绕树三匝，何枝
翅，哪里才有它们栖身之 所？ 可依？ 高山不辞土石才见巍 峨，大海不弃涓流才见壮阔。（比喻用人要“唯才是举”，多多益善。）山不厌高，水不厌深。 只有像周公那样礼待贤 才（周公见到贤才，吐出口 中正在咀嚼的食物，马上接 待。《史记》载周公自谓： “一沐三握发，一饭三吐哺， 犹恐失天下之贤。”），才 能使天下人心都归向我。 周公吐哺，天 赏析 曹操是汉末杰出的政治家、军事家和文学家，他雅好诗章，好作乐府歌辞，今存诗22首，全是乐府诗。曹操的乐府诗多描写他本人的政治主张和统一天下的雄心壮志。如他的《短歌行》，充分表达了诗人求贤若渴以及统一天下的壮志。 《短歌行》是政治性很强的诗作，主要是为曹操当时所实行的政治路线和政策策略服务的，但是作者将政治内容和意义完全熔铸在浓郁的抒情意境之中，全诗充分发挥了诗歌创作的特长，准确而巧妙地运用了比兴手法，寓理于情，以情感人。诗歌无论在思想内容还是在艺术上都取得了极高的成就，语言质朴，立意深远，气势充沛。这首带有建安时代"志深比长""梗概多气"的时代特色的《短歌行》，读后不觉思接千载，荡气回肠，受到强烈的感染。 对酒当歌，人生几何？ 譬如朝露，去日苦多。 慨当以慷，幽思难忘。 何以解忧，唯有杜康。 青青子衿，悠悠我心。 但为君故，沈吟至今。 呦呦鹿鸣，食野之苹。 我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙。 明明如月，何时可掇？ 忧从中来，不可断绝。 越陌度阡，枉用相存。 契阔谈，心念旧恩。 月明星稀，乌鹊南飞， 绕树三匝，何枝可依？ 山不厌高，海不厌深， 周公吐哺，天下归心。 《短歌行》是汉乐府的旧题，属于《相和歌?平调曲》。这就是说它本来是一个乐曲的名称，这种乐曲怎么唱法，现在当然是不知道了。但乐府《相和歌?平调曲》中除了《短歌行》还有《长歌行》，唐代吴兢《乐府古题要解》引证古诗“长歌正激烈”，魏文帝曹丕《燕歌行》“短歌微吟不能长”和晋代傅玄《艳歌行》“咄来长歌续短歌”等句，认为“长歌”、“短
高中英语选修课：英语文学欣赏 Sister Carrie 学生版讲义资料
Chapter III WEE QUESTION OF FORTUNE--FOUR-FIFTY A WEEK Once across the river and into the wholesale district, she glanced about her for some likely door at which to apply. As she contemplated the wide windows and imposing signs, she became conscious of being gazed upon and understood for what she was--a wage-seeker. She had never done this thing before, and lacked courage. To avoid a certain indefinable shame she felt at being caught spying about for a position, she quickened her steps and assumed an air of indifference supposedly common to one upon an errand. In this way she passed many manufacturing and wholesale houses without once glancing in. At last, after several blocks of walking, she felt that this would not do, and began to look about again, though without relaxing her pace. A little way on she saw a great door which, for some reason, attracted her attention. It was ornamented by a small brass sign, and seemed to be the entrance to a vast hive of six or seven floors. "Perhaps," she thought, "They may want some one," and crossed over to enter. When she came within a score of feet of the desired goal, she saw through the window a young man in a grey checked suit. That he had anything to do with the concern, she could not tell, but because he happened to be looking in her direction her weakening heart misgave her and she hurried by, too overcome with shame to enter. Over the way stood a great six- story structure, labelled Storm and King, which she viewed with rising hope. It was a wholesale dry goods concern and employed women. She could see them moving about now and then upon the upper floors. This place she decided to enter, no matter what. She crossed over and walked directly toward the entrance. As she did so, two men came out and paused in the door. A telegraph messenger in blue dashed past her and up the few steps that led to the entrance and disappeared. Several pedestrians out of the hurrying throng which filled the sidewalks passed about her as she paused, hesitating. She looked helplessly around, and then, seeing herself observed, retreated. It was too difficult a task. She could not go past them. So severe a defeat told sadly upon her nerves. Her feet carried her mechanically forward, every foot of her progress being a satisfactory portion of a flight which she gladly made. Block after block passed by. Upon streetlamps at the various corners she read names such as Madison, Monroe, La Salle, Clark, Dearborn, State, and still she went, her feet beginning to tire upon the broad stone flagging. She was pleased in part that the streets were bright and clean. The morning sun, shining down with steadily increasing warmth, made the shady side of the streets pleasantly cool. She looked at the blue sky overhead with more realisation of its charm than had ever come to her before. Her cowardice began to trouble her in a way. She turned back, resolving to hunt up Storm and King and enter. On the way, she encountered a great wholesale shoe company, through the broad plate windows of which she saw an enclosed executive
曹操《短歌行》其二翻译及赏析
曹操《短歌行》其二翻译及赏析 引导语：曹操(155—220)，字孟德，小名阿瞒，《短歌行 二首》 是曹操以乐府古题创作的两首诗， 第一首诗表达了作者求贤若渴的心 态，第二首诗主要是曹操向内外臣僚及天下表明心迹。 短歌行 其二 曹操 周西伯昌，怀此圣德。 三分天下，而有其二。 修奉贡献，臣节不隆。 崇侯谗之，是以拘系。 后见赦原，赐之斧钺，得使征伐。 为仲尼所称，达及德行， 犹奉事殷，论叙其美。 齐桓之功，为霸之首。 九合诸侯，一匡天下。 一匡天下，不以兵车。 正而不谲，其德传称。 孔子所叹，并称夷吾，民受其恩。 赐与庙胙，命无下拜。 小白不敢尔，天威在颜咫尺。 晋文亦霸，躬奉天王。 受赐圭瓒，钜鬯彤弓， 卢弓矢千，虎贲三百人。 威服诸侯，师之所尊。 八方闻之，名亚齐桓。 翻译 姬昌受封为西伯，具有神智和美德。殷朝土地为三份，他有其中两分。 整治贡品来进奉，不失臣子的职责。只因为崇侯进谗言，而受冤拘禁。 后因为送礼而赦免， 受赐斧钺征伐的权利。 他被孔丘称赞， 品德高尚地位显。 始终臣服殷朝帝王，美名后世流传遍。齐桓公拥周建立功业，存亡继绝为霸 首。
聚合诸侯捍卫中原，匡正天下功业千秋。号令诸侯以匡周室，主要靠的不是 武力。 行为磊落不欺诈，美德流传于身后。孔子赞美齐桓公，也称赞管仲。 百姓深受恩惠，天子赐肉与桓公，命其无拜来接受。桓公称小白不敢，天子 威严就在咫尺前。 晋文公继承来称霸，亲身尊奉周天王。周天子赏赐丰厚，仪式隆重。 接受玉器和美酒，弓矢武士三百名。晋文公声望镇诸侯，从其风者受尊重。 威名八方全传遍，名声仅次于齐桓公。佯称周王巡狩，招其天子到河阳，因 此大众议论纷纷。 赏析 《短歌行》 (“周西伯昌”)主要是曹操向内外臣僚及天下表明心 迹，当他翦灭群凶之际，功高震主之时，正所谓“君子终日乾乾，夕惕若 厉”者，但东吴孙权却瞅准时机竟上表大说天命而称臣，意在促曹操代汉 而使其失去“挟天子以令诸侯”之号召， 故曹操机敏地认识到“ 是儿欲据吾著炉上郁!”故曹操运筹谋略而赋此《短歌行 ·周西伯 昌》。 西伯姬昌在纣朝三分天下有其二的大好形势下， 犹能奉事殷纣， 故孔子盛称 “周之德， 其可谓至德也已矣。 ”但纣王亲信崇侯虎仍不免在纣王前 还要谗毁文王，并拘系于羑里。曹操举此史实，意在表明自己正在克心效法先圣 西伯姬昌，并肯定他的所作所为，谨慎惕惧，向来无愧于献帝之所赏。 并大谈西伯姬昌、齐桓公、晋文公皆曾受命“专使征伐”。而当 今天下时势与当年的西伯、齐桓、晋文之际颇相类似，天子如命他“专使 征伐”以讨不臣，乃英明之举。但他亦效西伯之德，重齐桓之功，戒晋文 之诈。然故作谦恭之辞耳，又谁知岂无更讨封赏之意乎 ?不然建安十八年(公元 213 年)五月献帝下诏曰《册魏公九锡文》，其文曰“朕闻先王并建明德， 胙之以土，分之以民，崇其宠章，备其礼物，所以藩卫王室、左右厥世也。其在 周成，管、蔡不静，惩难念功，乃使邵康公赐齐太公履，东至于海，西至于河， 南至于穆陵，北至于无棣，五侯九伯，实得征之。 世祚太师，以表东海。爰及襄王，亦有楚人不供王职，又命晋文登为侯伯， 锡以二辂、虎贲、斧钺、禾巨 鬯、弓矢，大启南阳，世作盟主。故周室之不坏， 系二国是赖。”又“今以冀州之河东、河内、魏郡、赵国、中山、常 山，巨鹿、安平、甘陵、平原凡十郡，封君为魏公。锡君玄土，苴以白茅，爰契 尔龟。”又“加君九锡，其敬听朕命。” 观汉献帝下诏《册魏公九锡文》全篇，尽叙其功，以为其功高于伊、周，而 其奖却低于齐、晋，故赐爵赐土，又加九锡，奖励空前。但曹操被奖愈高，心内 愈忧。故曹操在曾早在五十六岁写的《让县自明本志令》中谓“或者人见 孤强盛， 又性不信天命之事， 恐私心相评， 言有不逊之志， 妄相忖度， 每用耿耿。
翻译中国文化和历史
翻译（一）、中国文化和历史 1、狮舞（Lion Dance）是中国最广为流传的民间舞蹈之一。狮为百兽之首，在中国传统中，狮子被视为是能带来好运的吉祥物（mascot）。古人将狮子视作是勇敢和力量的化身，能驱赶邪恶、保护人类。据记载，狮舞已拥有了2,000多年的历史。在唐代（the Tang Dynasty），狮舞就已经被引入了皇室。因此，舞狮成为元宵节（the Lantern Festival）和其他节日的习俗，人们以此来祈祷好运、平安和幸福。 The Lion Dance is one of the most widespread folk dances in China.The lion is the king of animals. In Chinese tradition, the lion is regarded as a mascot, which can bring good luck.Ancient people regarded the lion as a symbol of braveness and strength, which could drive away evil and protect humans. The dance has a recorded history of more than 2,000 years. During the Tang Dynasty, the Lion Dance was already introduced into the royal family of the dynasty. Therefore, performing the lion dance at the Lantern Festival and other festive occasions became a custom where people could pray for good luck, safety and happiness. 2、端午节，又叫龙舟节，是为了纪念爱国诗人屈原。屈原是一位忠诚和受人敬仰的大臣（minister）,他给国家带来了和平和繁荣。但最后因为受到诽谤（vilify）而最终投河自尽。人们撑船到他自尽的地方，抛下粽子，希望鱼儿吃粽子，不要吃屈原的身躯。几千年来，端午节的特色在于吃粽子（glutinous dumplings）和赛龙舟，尤其是在一些河湖密布的南方省份。 ? The Duanwu Festival, also called the Dragon Boat Festival, is to commemorate the patriotic poet Qu Yuan. Qu Yuan was a loyal and highly esteemed minister, who brought peace and prosperity to the state but ended up drowning himself in a river as a result of being vilified. People got to the spot by boat and cast glutinous dumplings into the water, hoping that the fishes ate the dumplings instead of Qu Yuan’s body. For thousands of years, the festival has been marked by glutinous dumplings and dragon boat races, especially in the southern provinces where there are many rivers and lakes. 3、上海菜系是中国最年轻的地方菜系，通常被成为“本帮菜”，有着400多年的历史。同中国其他菜系一样，“本帮菜”具有“色，香，味”三大要素。//上海菜的特点是注重调料的使用，食物的质地和菜的原汁原味。其中最著名的有特色点心“南翔小笼”和特色菜“松鼠鲑鱼”。//“南翔小笼”是猪肉馅，个小味美，皮薄汁醇。“松鼠鲑鱼”色泽黄亮，形如松鼠，外皮脆而内肉嫩，汤汁酸甜适口。//在品尝过“松鼠鲑鱼”之后，我们常常惊讶于“松鼠”的形状，觉得在三大评价标准上在添加“形”这个标准才更合适。 Shanghai cuisine, usually called Benbang cuisine, is the youngest among themajor regional cuisines in China, with a history of more than 400 years. Like all other Chinese regional cuisines, Benbang cuisines takes “color, aroma and taste”as its essential quality elements.//Shanghai cuisine emphasizes in particular the expert use of seasonings,
_嘉莉妹妹_中自然主义赏析
目的。笔者曾进行了这方面的一个实验；对乐理、视唱程度相当的Ａ、Ｂ两个班，在讲小调式时，Ａ班此时视唱只唱小调式作品，边唱边分析；Ｂ班只在乐理课上选一些典型作品作简单分析，而视唱课对小调作品概不介绍，结果发现Ａ班大部分同学对小调式的特点掌握清晰、分析作品透彻，而Ｂ班多数同学对小调式作品的分析仍感糊涂。 （二）乐理和视唱由同一老师任教，选用乐理与视唱进度相当、联系密切的教材。 两门课由同一老师任教，这样就使老师对两门课的进度有更好的把握，从而做到在教学内容上的衔接，使乐理教学与视唱教学融为一体。现在有些院校已开始了这方面的尝试，如河南的黄河科技学院，商丘师院等。据笔者了解，由同一个老师任教班级学生的乐理视唱学习效果明显好于非同一教师任教的班级。 教材的选择对教学影响极大，原来的视唱教材极少有乐理内容，而乐理教材中的谱例也不多。目前新的教材已改变了这种状况，现在视唱教材中有了很好的理论知识讲授，如许敬行、孙虹编著，高教出版社出版的《视唱练习》。乐理教材有了更多的谱例，如贾方爵编著、 西南师大出版社出版的《基本乐理》。选用此种联系密切的教材， 教师在教学的过程中更易做到理论联系实际，学生在自学时也更易理解。 （三）加强乐理、视唱教学与其他科目的横向联系 音乐中的许多课程，如欣赏、民族民间音乐、合唱、音乐史等的学习对学生综合专业素质的提高有很大帮助，对它们的学习与对乐理和视唱的学习又能达到互相促进的目的。在乐理学教学中，学生最易迷惑的就是调式调性的判断，而进行调式判断时首先要靠听觉分辨作品的五声性和西方性。但如何能够分辨其是五声性作品还是西方调式体系作品，靠的是学生对音乐的基本鉴赏力。这就要求学生平时在欣赏课上要认真去听、去辨别，而欣赏老师也应该对不同体裁的音乐作品进行详细的讲解，并引导学生去辨别。经过这样长期的训练，学生对于不同地域、不同风格的音乐作品都有了了解和掌握，辨别调式的问题自然迎刃而解。同样，民族民间课程的学习对于学生了解和掌握各民族的音乐风格、特点起重要作用。经过同学们对民歌、戏曲等曲型片断的实际训练，在视唱这些有特点的作品时，其音乐风格的把握就会更好一些，因律制原因产生的音准问题也会大大减少，学生对民族风格的视唱会唱得更有味，把握得更准确。在这方面，如果乐理和视唱课需要，可会同其他科目的教师对教学进度、教学内容作一些适当的调整，使之与乐理、视唱教学相适应。如有必要，也可请这方面的专家，就某一问题进行一次讲座，以加深同学们对某些问题的理解。教师亦可有目的地向学生介绍一些此方面的书籍，让学生去阅读；介绍一些音响资料，让学生有目的地听，从而拓宽学生的知识面，进而更好地学习和掌握乐理和视唱。 总之，视唱与乐理相结合并密切联系相关科目的教学方法，不仅可以使学生增加对音乐理论的感性认识，加强视唱时的理论指导，更增加了视唱课的趣味性，使乐理不再枯燥，视唱课不再单调。 当然，加强乐理、视唱与其他科目教学的联系并不是说这些课程什么地方都可以互融。有些乐理知识如音律很难让学生唱出来。但这并不能否认加强视唱、乐理与其他学科教学联系的必要性。 作者简介：刘建坤，商丘师范学院音乐系教师。 一、美国自然主义的产生 内战之后，美国处于一段相对和平的时期，资本主义经济蓬勃发展。然而，在经济发展的背后，人们却普遍产生了一种悲观情绪，传统的理想主义被抛弃，宇宙的在规律性和机械性中蕴涵的漠然性使其变成了人类的敌人，至少已经不是人类慈祥的朋友。斯蒂芬?克莱恩（Ｓｔｅｐｈｅｎ Ｃｒａｎｅ（１８７１－１９００））的一首小诗Ｇｏｄ ｉｓ ｃｏｌｄ［１］ 便生动地反映了这种状况： 一个人对宇宙说：／“阁下，我存在的！”／“不过，”传来宇宙的回答，／“你的存在虽是事实，却／并没有使我产生义务感。” 对这一思潮起决定性作用的是达尔文的进化论（Ｔｈｅｏｒｙ ｏｆ Ｅｖｏｌｕｔｉｏｎ）。达尔文认为：影响生物进化的因素有三种，即：自然选择、性的选择及个体有生之期获得特性的遗传。进化论的诞生，是对传统神学及理想主义神学的全盘否定，它取消了上帝设计师和创造者的地位，进而强调人类产生过程的机械性，以及人类进化过程的因果循环性。受其影响，悲观、忧郁的新自然哲学应运而生。新自然哲学指出，自然是一座对人类遭遇无动于衷的庞大机器，人类在自然中必然要为生存而相互竞争，而且，部分人的毁灭是人类进步中不可避免的现象。 悲观的新自然哲学在文学中的反映就是产生悲观宿命的自然主义文学。英国哲学家赫伯特?斯宾塞（ＨｅｒｂｅｒｔＳｐｅｎｃｅｒ）的“社会达尔文主义” （Ｓｏｃｉａｌ Ｄａｒｗｉｎｉｓｍ）以及美国内战后的社会状况，对自然主义在美国的产生和发展起了极大的作用。当时的主要作家往往把人置于庞大的自然和社会背景中，从而显示其渺小、脆弱以及无可奈何。 ＂生存＂是人类活动的最高目标，道德规范对于实际生活已经毫无意义。 在美国自然主义文学中，最为突出的代表是西奥多?德莱塞。 二、德莱塞在美国文学史上的地位 西奥多?德莱塞 ［Ｔｈｅｏｄｏｒｅ Ｄｒｅｉｓｅｒ （１８７１－１９４５）］是美国现代小说的先驱和代表作家，被认为是同海明威、福《嘉莉妹妹》是美国自然主义文学大师西奥多?德莱塞的处女作和成名作。自然主义在书中 主要表现为作者对失败者的深刻同情。 《嘉莉妹妹》中 自然主义赏析 文／姚晓鸣 编辑：冯彬彬 69 美与时代 ２００３．１１下