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托福模拟考试及答案解析(14)

托福模拟考试及答案解析（14）

(1/53)阅读理解

第1题

The Formation of Civilization

The criteria for a body of people to be considered a civilization includes the construction of permanent settlements, the use of agriculture for food, the emergence of a leadership class, the worship of one or more deities, and the development of art and writing. For most of human history, these features were beyond the reach of the roving bands of hunter-gatherers whose primary concern was obtaining food. Some tribes may have settled in areas to hunt, fish, or gather fruits or nuts for short periods, but their shelters were not permanent, and they inevitably moved on when their food supplies became exhausted.

This changed once humans discovered how to farm. Agriculture developed at different times around the world, but sometime around 8000 B.C., people in the Middle East learned how to sow wild grains to produce crops. Since raising crops takes time, these individuals built permanent shelters and stood guard over their plants to protect them from other people and wild animals. This required a degree of organization and specialization, so people began doing various tasks. Some worked the land, others protected the settlements, and others raised animals or made crafts such as pottery and woven baskets. Hunter-gatherer groups had always had leaders; therefore, it was natural for them to emerge in these permanent settlements. Because agriculture depended upon good weather and timely rain or floodwaters, people started worshipping deities and praying for sunshine and rain.

Over time, the practice of agriculture led to population explosions and the founding of civilizations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, and the Indus Valley. The leaders became kings, the protectors became soldiers, the shamans who prayed to deities became priests in organized religions, and the majority of people became peasants who farmed the land and worked on massive construction projects in honor of their kings and gods. Craftsmen also began creating beautiful works of art, and, in some places, writing was developed to record history and to communicate with others. In these places, civilization was born.

*hunter-gatherer: a human that has no permanent home but wanders the land while hunting, fishing, and gathering wild fruits, grains, and vegetables

*shaman: a person that acts as an intermediary between the real world and the spirit world

An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas of the passage. Some sentences do not belong because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

Thousands of years ago, hunter-gatherers learned to farm the land and then developed civilizations based around the permanent settlements they established.

ANSWER CHOICES

①There are still some groups of people in the world who can be said not to have established civilizations yet.

②Once people started settling down in one place, individuals began taking on roles such as those of king, soldier, shaman, and peasant.

③Some of the first civilizations were established in China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley.

④Having organized religions, creating art, and developing writing systems are three of the characteristics of human civilizations.

⑤It was necessary for people to learn how to raise crops by farming the land for them to start establishing civilizations.

⑥Most of the people in the earliest civilizations were peasants who had to farm the land and serve their masters.

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第2题

The Expanding Universe Theory

The Big Bang Theory, which posits that the universe began from a single point of incredibly dense matter, is the most widely accepted theory regarding the creation of the universe. According to it, roughly fourteen billion years ago, this matter exploded and expanded to form the present-day universe. This theory is based upon observations of the universe suggesting that it is not static but is instead continually expanding outward.

For centuries, astronomers believed that the universe was fixed and that Earth was located at its center. By the early twentieth century, the notion that Earth was at the center of the universe had been dispelled, but the static universe theory was still the prevailing model. Even Albert Einstein was a great believer in it. Then, in 1917, he had a revelation. His general theory of relativity did not precisely agree with the static universe model, yet he could not reconcile his strong belief in a static universe with his theories, so he concluded that some unknown force was preventing the universe from expanding. Simultaneously, other astronomers were discovering that Earth and the sun belonged to a large collection of stars they called a galaxy. In 1925, American astronomer Edwin Hubble proved other galaxies existed in addition to Earth's galaxy, which had been dubbed the Milky Way.

Hubble made further observations that had a profound effect on the static universe theory. In 1929, he realized that the light coming from the galaxies he was observing had a distinctive red shift on the light spectrum. This was due to the Doppler Effect, which makes an object moving away from an observer appear red in color. This meant that the galaxies were moving away from one another and that the universe was expanding outward. There was resistance to Hubble's theory, but Einstein accepted it, and others soon agreed with the expanding universe theory as well. From it, astronomers concluded that if the universe was expanding, then it must have been much smaller at some point. That led to the Big Bang Theory becoming the accepted model for the creation of the universe.

*static: stationary; unmoving

*Doppler Effect: a shift in the frequency of the radiation emitted by a source that is moving relative to an observer

Thanks to discoveries made by astronomers in the twentieth century, the expanding universe model replaced the static universe model as accepted science,

ANSWER CHOICES

①Edwin Hubble made a discovery that showed that the galaxies in the universe were spreading apart from one another.

②The theory of relativity showed Albert Einstein that his notion that the universe was static was incorrect.

③Most people throughout history have believed that the universe is static and that Earth can be found at its center.

④The belief in the expanding universe model indicated to astronomers that the universe was probably started due to the Big Bang.

⑤Albert Einstein and Edwin Hubble worked together to come up with the expanding universe model.

⑥The Doppler Effect is what makes an object appear red when it is moving away from another object.

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(3~11/共53题)阅读理解

Prions and Illness

Prions are proteins responsible for several infectious diseases that can affect both humans and animals. In humans, prions cause a number of neurological diseases which result in a decrease in cognitive functions and that almost always end in death. Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease—often called mad cow disease because of its debilitating effect on bovines—is one such prion disease that strikes the human brain. Some others are fatal familial insomnia, kuru, and Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker Disease (GSS).

These diseases, while different, share some similarities, particularly their cause. Prion proteins are attached to cell surfaces and are usually not harmful; however, in each of the aforementioned diseases, a prion protein in the brain assumes a wrong shape, disrupting the cell it is attached to. This signals nearby prion proteins to form improper shapes, too. The process slowly spreads across the brain as it destroys neurons, builds up plaque-like matter, and makes holes in brain tissue. It is slow moving, so it may take several years before the first symptoms are recognized.

There are three main forms of prion diseases: acquired, genetic, and sporadic. People get acquired prion diseases through infections by bad prions, typically through food. Kuru, a prion disease that was once common in New Guinea, was caused by cannibals eating the brains of people with bad prions, and Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease, which humans get from ingesting infected beef, is another example. Genetic prion diseases are passed from parents to children through genes as an error causes the genes that code prion proteins to make mutant prion proteins that, as the children age, attach to cells in the wrong shapes. Fatal familial insomnia, which is found in a few families worldwide, causes people to be unable to sleep, and eventually leads to death, is one such example. As for sporadic prion diseases, they have no definitive causes. Experts believe they manifest because of mutant genes but are not certain why people acquire the diseases. Roughly 85% of prion diseases are sporadic as their victims are not exposed to infected food and have no family history of prion diseases.

*bovine: an animal such as a cow or buffalo

*neuron: a specialized cell that is a part of the nervous system

第3题

An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas of the

passage. Some sentences do not belong because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

Prions are proteins that can cause various types of diseases to infect the brains of their victims. ANSWER CHOICES

①Sporadic prion diseases are not caused by infected food or genetics, so their causes are a complete mystery.

②Medical researchers believe that they can cure some of the best-known prion diseases, including Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease.

③Sporadic prion diseases are the most common, but there are also acquired and genetic prion diseases.

④When prions take the wrong shape, they cause other prions to do the same thing, and this can spread through the brain.

⑤When a person is infected by a prion disease, that individual's thinking processes are weakened, and the disease is nearly always fatal.

⑥Only a few families around the world are affected by the genetic prion disease that is called fatal familial insomnia.

第4题

Mapping

The following chart shows the structure of the passage. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words.

图片

第5题

Summary

The following is a summary of the passage. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words.

Prions are 5 that can cause various diseases in both humans and animals. The diseases they cause in humans, such as Creutzfeldt-Jacobs Disease, fatal familial insomnia, kuru, and Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker Disease, almost always 6 the infected people. What happens is that a prion protein in the brain assumes the wrong 7 , and then it causes nearby prion proteins to do the same thing. This spreads across the brain, destroys neurons, builds up plaque-like matter, and creates 8 in brain tissue. Prion diseases can be acquired, genetic, or sporadic. 9 prion diseases are typically gotten from food. 10 prion diseases are passed from parents to children, and 11 prion diseases have no known causes.

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第11题

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(12~19/共53题)阅读理解

Humanism and Renaissance Art

Humanism is the idea that human life and its natural surroundings are more important than a religious-centered view of the world. Its origins lie in ancient Greece and can be seen in Greek art,

which depicts humans with anatomically correct proportions. The notion of humanism spread to other parts of the ancient world but then declined when the Roman Empire fell. Gradually, humanism was replaced by religion as the primary focus of life as well as art. Artwork produced in the Middle Ages, which began roughly after the fall of Rome, is almost entirely focused on religion while human aspects are secondary concerns. For instance, saints and other religious figures are depicted in medieval paintings as having halos, and the holy people themselves are much larger than normal humans. In addition, the mathematical precision with which the ancients showed both scale and depth in their works became a lost art.

It was not until the late fourteenth century in Florence, Italy, that a revival of humanistic thinking began. At first, it was mostly scholarly and literary in form, but over time, this rediscovered philosophy spread and had a profound influence on establishing the era known today as the Renaissance. Humanism had a particularly powerful effect on artists then. Slowly, artists moved away from religion being the focal point of their work as they began showing humans in a more realistic manner. In artwork in which religious figures were depicted, they were no longer wearing halos or looming over other humans. They were instead drawn or painted on the same scale. In Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper, for instance, Jesus and his disciples are represented naturally as real people rather than as iconic figures of Christianity.

Nature became prominent in Renaissance art, too, as humans were placed in natural scenes, and nature was represented more realistically. The rediscovering of the ancient mathematical method of drawing humans and the using of depth in artwork led the way to paintings showing people more realistically. Painters learned the art of foreshortening, which gave paintings an illusion of depth not found in prior periods. The depth and lifelike aspect of Renaissance art was further enhanced by the invention of oil paints, which enabled artists to work in more detail and to include more naturalism in their works. ? Furthermore, artists of that time embraced the human body as a work of art. ?They accomplished this by showing the body nude more often than clothed and by putting the beauty of the human body on full display. ?Michelangelo's sculpture David is the prime example of this as it shows a nude human body in perfectly chiseled proportions.?

Art patrons, such as the Medici family of Florence, also encouraged the influence of humanism on art. Not satisfied only with artwork with religious themes, individuals of wealth and social standing sought artists who could provide more secular views in their art and commissioned works with humanist aspects. A final way in which humanism affected Renaissance art concerned how people perceived artists. At one time, artists were regarded as craftsmen rather than specialists, which is why hardly any artists from the Middle Ages are known today. However, people recognized the true genius of men such as Michelangelo, Leonardo, and Raphael, so they—and many others—are remembered today for the brilliance of their work.

*anatomically correct: properly representing the human body

*halo: a disc or circle of light around the head of a divine or holy individual

第12题

Vocabulary

______=exactness

第13题

______=carved

第14题

______=to improve; to make better

第15题

______=to think of; to consider

第16题

Vocabulary Question

The word art in the passage is closest in meaning to ______

A.skill

B.replica

C.painting

D.work

第17题

Negative Factual Information Question

In paragraph 2, all of the following questions are answered EXCEPT: ______

A.What changes in the representation of religious figures in art did humanism cause?

B.How influential was on other art produced in the Renaissance?

C.How important was the idea of humanism to the Renaissance?

D.When and where did humanism start to become prominent again?

第18题

Insert Text Question

Look at the four squares [●] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

The paints that had been used previously had dried more quickly and been less vivid, which made them produce works of inferior quality.

Where would the sentence best fit?

第19题

Prose Summary Question

The notion of humanism had a great impact on the artwork that was produced during the Renaissance.

ANSWER CHOICES

①Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper is considered one of the greatest works of humanism in the Renaissance.

②Michelangelo, Leonardo, and Raphael could not have created the artwork they made without the influence of humanistic ideas.

③The relearning of artistic techniques from ancient times enabled Renaissance artists to portray their figures more realistically.

④Renaissance artists influenced by humanism began portraying religious figures as normal-sized humans lacking halos.

⑤The desire of rich individuals to possess artwork of a secular nature induced many artists to abandon painting pictures with religious themes.

⑥The ancient Greeks were among the first people to develop various notions of humanism and

to implement those ideas in their artwork.

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(20~27/共53题)阅读理解

The Wilderness Road

For the first century and a half following their founding, the American colonies—as well as the American people—were mainly confined to the Eastern Seaboard along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. West of the Appalachian Mountains, the land was too rugged for easy travel, and it was also the territory of numerous Native American tribes that contested attempts at westward settlement with violence. It was not until 1775 that a route to the west was established when frontiersman Daniel Boone cut a trail from Tennessee northwest through the tail end of Virginia and then through the Cumberland Gap into Kentucky. Called the Wilderness Road, this trail, which eventually stretched more than 300 kilometers, became the principal route westward for the next fifty years.

The Wilderness Road was not entirely hacked out of the forests as it followed long-used animal and native trails. Previous expeditions into Kentucky had followed these paths, but the explorers had been harassed by bands of Cherokee and Shawnee Indians. Daniel Boone tried to lead a group of settlers into the region in 1773 but was turned back by an attack during which his oldest son was captured and later killed. Two years later, a group of wealthy investors from North Carolina who were led by Richard Henderson, a prominent judge, formed the Transylvania Company for the purpose of making a trail into Kentucky to settle in the region and to create a new colony, which they intended to name Transylvania. To lead the expedition, the investors hired Daniel Boone, who was reputed to be the man who knew the most about Kentucky and the way west. Before Boone set out, he and Henderson negotiated peace with the local tribes, but not all of their members were willing to abide by the terms of the settlement.

On March 10, 1775, Boone led a large party of men wielding axes to begin cutting a trail from Tennessee. Their starting point was the Holston River near Kingsport. The men made good progress by following existing trails when they could and by crossing rivers at shallow fords. They passed through a notch in the Appalachians that was known as the Cumberland Gap and went down into Kentucky. Boone and his men suffered some losses when they were attacked by hostile natives in violation of the peace settlement, but the attacks failed to deter them, and they reached the Kentucky River in April. There, Boone founded a settlement that was named Boonesborough after him. Arriving later were Henderson and a larger body of men and wagons as they had followed Boone, widened the trail, and brought along plenty of provisions for the new settlement.

The way west was now open, but the Wilderness Road was not much more than a muddy path barely wide enough for wagons to traverse in its first few years. It was also dangerous since warfare with the natives that would last for twenty years erupted. Travelers went well armed, and attacks were frequent. Nevertheless, the lure of land attracted many westward, and it is estimated that 300,000 settlers had moved into Kentucky by 1810. Henderson's attempts to form the colony of Transylvania were opposed by Virginia, which laid claim to the region. When the American Revolution broke out in 1775, Henderson appealed to the Continental Congress for statehood, but the representatives refused to recognize Transylvania as a state. Eventually, in 1792, the American government admitted Kentucky as the fifteenth state in the United States.

*Eastern Seaboard: the land in the American colonies, and later the United States, alongside

the Atlantic Ocean

*hack: to cut with an axe

*ford: a place where a river, stream, or other body of water is shallow enough to be crossed by walking

第20题

Vocabulary

______=rough; rocky

第21题

______=to follow; to obey

第22题

______=to challenge; to attempt to stop

第23题

______=to hold and use a tool or weapon

第24题

Rhetorical Purpose Question

In paragraph 1, why does the author mention Daniel Boone?

A.To point out that he discovered the existence of the Cumberland Gap

B.To blame him for the hostilities settlers faced from Native Americans

C.To argue that he was responsible for the colonizing of the land west of the Appalachians

D.To give him credit as the person who created the Wilderness Road

第25题

Factual Information Question

In paragraph 2, the author's description of Transylvania mentions which of the following? ______

A.Why the founders of it decided to give the colony that particular name

B.The general area that the colony was intended to be established in

C.The individuals who were supposed to have executive positions in it

D.The number of people who were hoping that they could settle in it

第26题

Reference Question

The word them in the passage refers to ______

A.Boone and his men

B.some losses

C.hostile natives

D.the attacks

第27题

Prose Summary Question

Daniel Boone was the person mostly responsible for the making of the Wilderness Road, which opened the interior of America to colonists.

ANSWER CHOICES

①The application of the colony of Transylvania for American statehood was rejected by the

Continental Congress.

②In 1775, a group of men under the leadership of Daniel Boone cut a path through the Appalachian Mountains from Tennessee to Kentucky.

③The creating of the Wilderness Road was difficult because Native Americans often attacked and even destroyed some parts of the trail.

④The Wilderness Road was utilized by hundreds of thousands of settlers heading west in the half century after it was created.

⑤Richard Henderson was the man who hired Daniel Boone to make the Wilderness Road since he wanted to found a new American state.

⑥Once Daniel Boone's men made it to Kentucky, they founded Boonesborough for the larger group that was following them.

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(28~41/共53题)阅读理解

Pacific Island Plant and Animal Migration

The Pacific Ocean is covered by a vast archipelago of islands that are spread out in long chains covering thousands of kilometers with some close to large landmasses and others much farther away. When European explorers chanced upon these islands, almost all of them were inhabited, and most had significant amounts of vegetation as well as large populations of various species of animals. Because nearly all of these islands were created by volcanic activity, such life—both plant and animal—would have been absent from them when they rose above the ocean's surface. The plants and animals living on them migrated from elsewhere by both air and sea. In many cases, they accomplished this on their own, but some of them got helping hands from humans.

Plant life on the desolate volcanic Pacific islands most likely initially arrived due to the wind. Small seeds such as thistle seeds and the spores of ferns are lightweight enough to have been carried aloft great distances whereas heavy seeds would have had more difficulty being transported that way, especially to remote, isolated islands such as Easter Island and the Galapagos Islands. The latter group has many lichens, ferns, and mosses, which all grow from light spores, yet it has few vascular plants, which have heavier seeds. As for vascular plant life, it could have arrived on other islands through two ways: by water or birds. The coconut tree is widespread throughout the Pacific islands in spite of its enormous seeds being too heavy to be carried by the wind, yet it is light enough to float, so it has moved all across the ocean in that way. Birds may have also consumed various heavy seeds, flown to islands, and then defecated the seeds onto these new lands, whereupon they then began to grow. There may not have been suitable soil for seeds to grow in on these volcanic islands at first, but, over time, as new plant life arrived, the soil was sufficiently broken up and filled with nutrients, thereby allowing many plant species to take root.

Similarly, animals arrived by air and sea. The birds that first arrived on the Pacific islands indisputably flew from nearby larger landmasses. Over many generations, they could have island-hopped from one place to another. Small insects—and possibly tiny invertebrates—may have been light enough to be windblown to various islands. Certainly, sea creatures such as turtles and penguins arrived on the islands by swimming to them. Small mammals and reptiles may have arrived on them by water, most likely after floating on rafts of dense vegetation that were blown out to sea during strong storms. Some species of mice have been known to do this, and lizards have also been found on rafts far from their native homelands.

Today, many Pacific islands are home to a wide variety of plants and animals that reside throughout the rest of the world. The reason is that they were brought to the islands as a result of human migration. Over thousands of years, people spread from mainland Asia into the Pacific islands as they reached as far south as New Zealand, as far east as Easter Island, and as far north as Hawaii. During these great migrations, people took their plants and animals with them. One example is the chicken, which is found virtually everywhere in the Pacific today because it was transported in large canoes from island to island. The pig was also widespread throughout the Pacific and became an important source of protein for Pacific islanders. Some animals, such as mice, were most likely stowaways on islanders' canoes. Furthermore, people took their staple plants, such as taro and yams, which they planted on the islands as they slowly made their way across the Pacific Ocean.

The Pacific natives were not the only ones who contributed to animal and plant migration as Europeans also played a role of their own. Unfortunately, European explorers brought many animals that caused disruptions on the islands. ?Dogs, rats, snakes, and cats, for instance, hunted many species of small mammals and birds to extinction. ?Plant eaters such as goats and sheep had negative effects on small islands' vegetation as well. ?Nevertheless, these new animals provided some benefits. ?Goats and sheep, for instance, became important to the settlements of Europeans on New Zealand.

第28题

in paragraph 1, the author implies that many of the Pacific islands ______

A.contained plants and animals despite having active volcanoes

B.had civilized tribes of humans living on them

C.were discovered accidentally by European explorers

D.were larger than the islands in other oceans on the planet

第29题

According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of the islands in the Pacific Ocean? ______

A.Most of them have volcanoes that went extinct many years ago.

B.Virtually all of them are found close to large masses of land.

C.The majority of them have never had humans living permanently on them.

D.They lacked both plant and animal life when they were first created.

第30题

The word desolate in the passage is closest in meaning to ______

A.promising

B.destroyed

C.barren

D.fertile

第31题

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

The coconut tree is widespread throughout the Pacific islands in spite of its enormous seeds being too heavy to be carried by the wind, yet it is light enough to float, so it has moved all across the ocean in that way. ______

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