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语言学问题

语言学问题
语言学问题

第一章、绪论Introduction

1、语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么?

Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:

General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study

Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication

Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication

Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words

Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences

Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.

Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use

Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society

Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.

Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.

Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.

2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别?

Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.

3、什么叫共时研究?什么叫历时研究?

The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.

4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么?

1) Arbitrariness 。It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to. The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.

2) Productivity 。Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.

3) Duality 。It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.

4) Displacement 。It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

5) Cultural transmission 。While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.

5、Chomsky的语言能力和语言使用各指什么?

American linguist N. Chomsky in t he late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the lan guage user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speak er’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.

6、Saussure 是如何区分语言和言语的?

The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract;

It is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.

7、什么是语言学?

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.

8、口头语与书面语

Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:

1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution

2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing

3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language

9、几个术语

Prescriptive: aims to lay down rules for "correct" behaviour.

Descriptive: describe and analyzes the language people actually use.

Synchronic: the description of a language at some point in time.

Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time .

Synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.

Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.

Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.

Competence: the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.

Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

10、Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?

Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements

“photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.

第二章、语音学Phonetics

1、语言交际的两大媒介是什么?哪一个是基本的交际媒介?为什么?

Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.

2、语音学的三个分支是什么。它们研究的对象各是什么?

Articulatory phonetics: It studies the human speech organs and the way in which thee speech sounds are produced.

Acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the speech sounds; it deals with the sound waves through the use of such machines as a spectrograph.

Auditory phonetics is the study of the perception of sounds by the human ear.

3、什么叫浊音化?它是如何形成的?

V oicing is the result of the vibration of the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a way are voiceless. When vocal cords are held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them, the sounds produced in this way are voiced.

4、宽式标音和严式标音有什么区别?

The broad transcription is the transcription of sounds by using one letter to represent one sound. The narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.

5、英语的辅音是如何分类的?

1) by place of articulation :

a. bilabial such as [p],[b],[m],[w]

b. labiodental such as [f],[v]

c. dental such as [θ],[T ]

d. alveolar such as [t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]

e. palatal such as [∫], [V ],[ t∫ ], [d ], [j]

f. velar such as [k], [g], [ N ]

g. glottal such as [h]

2) by manner of articulation.

a. Stops such as [p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]

b. Fricatives such as [f],[v],[s],[z],[ θ],[ T ], [∫ ], [ ], [h]

c. Afficates such as [t∫], [d ]

d. Liquids such as [l], [r]

e. Nasals such as [n],[m],[N]

f. Glides such as [w], [j]

6、英语的元音是如何分类的?

1) V owels may be distinguished as front vowels such as [i:] [i] [e] [A] [a], central vowels such as [\:], [[],[Q]and back vowels such as[u:] [J] [ C:] and [B:] in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.

2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels such as [i:],[ i],[u:],[J], semi-close vowels such as[e], [з: ] , semi-open vowels such as [ [ ], [ C: ] , and open vowels such as [?], [a], [Λ] and [ɑ:].

3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.

4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound. The long vowels include [i:] [\:] [ C: ] [u:] [ɑ:],while the rest are short vowels.

7、语音学和音系学有什么区别?

They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

9、什么是超音位特征?它是如何影响语义的?

1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compund noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.

2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives, adverbs, etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the s entence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.

3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.

11、复合词有什么特点?

Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.

Three important cavities: pharyngeal cavity - throat, the oral cavity - the mouth, the nasal cavity - the nose.

13、Phonology and phonetics

The difference between phonology and phonetics: phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human language. phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language.

15、Phonemic contrast, complemently distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立,互补分布和最小对立对

Phonemic contrast: two phonemes can occur in the same enviorments and they distinguish meaning.

Complemently distribution:two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.

Minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.

16、Some rules in phonology

1、Sequential rules[序列规则]。Definition: the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.

2、Assimilation rules[同化规则].The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.

3、Deletion rule[省略规则]。

17、Definition of suprasegment featrues: distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.

1、Stress.Word stress: the syllable is pronounced with greated force that the other or others.

sentence stress: refers to the relative force which is given to the words in a sentence.

2、Tone.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. pitch variations can

distinguish meaning just like phonemes.

3、Intonation.It plays a important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language. English has four basic types of

intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone.

18、Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.

19、Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.

20、Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.

21、Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.

22、allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.

23、Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.

24、Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.

25、Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.

26、tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.

27、intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English

第三章、形态学Morphology

1、词素可以划分成哪些类别?

Free morphemes: They are the indepen dent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.

Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” i n the word “friendless”.

2、Definition.

Morphology[词态学]: study the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

It has two sub-branches:

Inflectional morphology[曲折词态学]:study the inflection;

derivational[派生] morphology: study of word-formation

Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language

Root: is seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combine with another root or an affix to form a word.

Affixes are of two types: inflectional[曲折词缀] and derivational[派生词缀].Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.

Derivational affixes: are added to an existing form to create a word. such a way of word-formation is called derivation[派生法] and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative[派生词]. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem[词干].

Affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes[前缀] and suffixes[后缀]. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, except the prefixes "be-",and "en-". Suffixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.

3、Features of compounds

1) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.

2) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.

3) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.

4) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.

4、morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

5、inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.

6、derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.

7、morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

8、free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.

9、bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

10、root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.

11、affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.

12、prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.

13、suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.

14、derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.

15、compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.

16、Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.

Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such

as “-less” in the word “friendless”.

第四章、句法学Syntax

2、sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.

3、transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.

4、D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.

5、Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntac tic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а

6、什么是X-标杆理论?

X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.

Types of sentences:simple sentence, coordinate(compound) sentence[复合句],complex sentence

1、The simple sentence。A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause[定式从句].

2、The coordinate sentence. A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction[并列连词]. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence.

3、The complex sentence. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause[从句], and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause[主句].

1)An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.

2)Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator[从属连词].

3)An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.

10、Syntactic categories

Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to.

Lexical category[词类]and phrasal category[词组类]. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.[可以相互替换而又不改变语法属性的成分属于同一句法类型。] Phrasal categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase(NP), verb phrase(VP), prepositional phrase(PP), and adjective phrase(AP).

Grammatical relations: Awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents. We usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and direct object of. structural subject[结构主语] and structural object[结构宾语] Only in terms of structural concepts, the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.logical subject[逻辑主语] means the doer of the action. logical object[逻辑宾语] means the recipient of the action.

11、Combinational rules

Phrase structure rules

The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule[重写规则].

1) S -> NP VP .The arrow is read as "consist of ", or "is rewritten as". The rule in 1) is read as "A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase."

2) NP -> (Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S) "A noun phrase consist of, or is rewritten as an optional determiner, an optional adjective, an obligatory[必用的] noun, an optional prepositional phrase, and /or optional sentence.

3) VP -> V(NP)(PP)(S)

4) AP -> A(PP)(S)

5) PP -> P NP

The recursiveness of phrase structure rules [短语结构规则的循环性]. Recursive properties: An S contains a VP that may contain another S; a VP may include an S that contains another VP; a PP consists of an NP that may be followed by another PP; and an NP may take a PP that includes an NP and/or an S!

12、X-bar theory

XP -> (Spec[指示词]) X (Compl[补语]) A format using the symbol" (read as double bar) and '(read as single bar) can then be abstracted, given both in a tree diagram (见课本81页) and in a formula (7)

7) X" -> Spec X'

X' -> X Compl

13、Synatactic movement and movement rules[句法位移和移位规则]

Synatactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new positon. Synatactic movement is dictated by rules traditonall called transformational rules[转换规则].

NP-movement and WH-movement

NP-movement occur when a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice.

WH-movement is obligatory[强制性的] in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.

14、D-structure and S-structure

A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement takes place, named D-structure (or the deep structure[深层结构]),the other occurs after movement takes place named S-structure (roughly meaning the surface structure[表层结构])

Transformational-generative line of analysis: it is believed that phrase structure rules with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-structure.

Phrase structure rules + the lexicon ----> D-structure ----> movement rules ----> S-structure

15、Move α -- a general movement rule 。Move α(or move Alpha) is move certain constituent to cert ain place.

16、Toward a theory of universal grammar[普遍语法理论]

Since early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar(UG)[普遍语法] known as the Principles-and-parameters theory.[原则及参数理论]

General principles of Universal Grammar。One such principle, or condition, is the case condition[格条件]. As is required by the case conditon principle, a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V(verb) or P(preposition) to the object position, or by AUX(auxiliary) to the subject position.

Another condition is what is known as the Adjacency condition[毗邻条件] on case assignment, which states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.

The parameters of Universal Grammar。Adjacency parameter[毗邻参数]: UG is believed to contain a parameter with the values [+strict adjacency] and [- strict adjacency] set on the Adjacency Condition.

Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, known as the Directionality parameter.[方位参数] Two directionality values [rightward directionality]左向位and [leftward directionality] 右向位。

17、linguistic competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

18、sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.

19、transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.

20、D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure. 21、Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а

22、syntax studies the sentence structure of language.

23、Types of sentences

simple sentence, coordinate(compound) sentence[复合句],complex sentence

第五章、语义学Semantics

1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.

2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.

3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.

5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.

6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.

7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.

8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.

10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.

11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.

12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.

13、语义研究的主要流派有哪些?

1) The naming theory: It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.

2) The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

3) Contextualism: It is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized:the situational context and the linguistic context .For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined according to the context in which the sentence occurs: The seal

could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.

(seal meaning an aquatic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried.

(seal meaning the king's stamp)

4) Behaviorism The contextualist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield . He drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer". (Bloomfield, This behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism. It is linked with psychological interest.

14、所指与意义有什么关系?

Sense and reference are two terms in the study of meaning. (1) Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning that dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. (2) Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. On the other hand, there are less frequent occasions when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. “morning star” and “evening star”.

15、同义词可以分为哪些类别?

Dialectal synonyms : Dialectal synonyms are words which have more or less the same meaning and are used in different regional dialects such as petroleum in British English and gasoline in American English. Dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect.

Stylistic synonyms: Stylistic synonyms are words which have the same meaning but differ in style, or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal , others tend to be casual , and still others are neutral in style. For example:old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent.

Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning :They are words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about, such as thrifty and miser.

Collocational synonyms : Some synonyms differ in their collocation. That is, they go together with different words, for example: accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. .-for.

Semantically different synonyms: They refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, " astound" imples difficulty in believing. "

16、在语义上,反义关系可以分为哪几个类别?各有什么特征?

1) gradable antonys: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair such as old/young, hot/cold.

2) Complementary antonyms: a pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.

3) Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.

17、什么是述谓结构?它有那些类型?

The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.

According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, the predications may be classified into two-place predication (containing two arguments), one-place argument (containing one argument), and no-place predication ( containing no argument). For example:

His car is next to my car. (Two-place predication)

He is singing. (One-place predication)

It is raining. (No-place predication)

18、句子的意义是构成句子的每个单词意义的总和吗?

The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components. It cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. Eg; The dog bit the man. The man bit the dog.

The two sentences consist of exactly the same words, but they arc widely different in their meanings.

19、语义变化的主要类型有哪些?

Semantic change refers to the change of meaning of a word. The major types of semantic change are as follows: (1) Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier deno tation. For example, the word “holiday” was originally used to mean a day of religious significance because it was a “holy day”. Today everyone enjoys a holiday, whether he or she is religious or not. (2) Semantic narrowing is the reverse process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example, the word “liquor” in contemporary English is an alcoholic drink, but it was once synonymous with “liquid”, be it alcoholic or not. (3) Semantic sh ift refers to the process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning, e.g. the word “silly”. Quite surprisingly, a “silly” person was a happy person in Old English, and a naive person in Middle English, but a fooli sh person in Modern English.

第六章语用学Pragmatics

1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.

3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.

5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act ex pressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.

6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.

7、语用学和传统语义学有什么区别?

Pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context of use, while traditional semantics treats meaning as something intrinsic, abstract and de-contextualized.

8、句子和话语有什么区别?

A sentence is a grammatical unit. Its meaning is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. Utterance is what people actually utter in the course of communication. It should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered or used. Most utterances take the form of sentences, i.e. most utterances are complete sentences in terms of syntax; however, some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.

9、句子的语义与话语语义有什么区别?

The meaning of a sentence is abstract and de-contextualized, while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent. Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

10、言内行为、言外行为和言后行为有什么区别,举例说明。

A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.

A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. For example: You have left the door wide open.

The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean. The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door. The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully performed .

11、Searle是如何对言外行为进行分类的?它们各自的言外之的是什么?

1) Representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.

2) Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.

3) Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.

4) Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.

5) Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something.

12、合作原则的四个准则是什么?违反合作原则的四个准则是如何产生会话含义的?

1)The maxim of quantity

(1) Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .

(2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

2) The maxim of quality

(1) Do not say what you believe to be false.

(2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

3)The maxim of relation

Be relevant.

4)The maxim of manner

(1) Avoid obscurity of expression.

(2) Avoid ambiguity.

(3) Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .

(4) Be orderly.

13、What is context?

It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. V arious components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before; knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the hearer's interpretation of what is said to him.

14、Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义和话语意义

If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence.

If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.

The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualizd, that of an utterance is concrete, and context dependent.

15、Searle's classification of speech acts Searle's的言语行为分类

1. representatives(阐述类): stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true

2. directives(指令类): trying to get the hearer to do something

3. commissives(承诺类): committing the speaker himself to some future course of action

4. expressives(表述类): expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state

5. declarations(声明类): bringing about immediate changes by saying something

第七章、历史语言学Historical linguistics

1、historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.

2、apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.

3、epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.

4、metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.

5、compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.

6、derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.

7、blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.

8、back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.

9、semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..

10、semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.

11、semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.

12、protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.

13、sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes

14、英语语言的发展可分为哪几个主要阶段?各个阶段的转变是以什么历史事件为标志的?

English has undergone dramatic changes throughout the three major periods, i.e. Old English (roughly from 449 to 1100), Middle English (roughly from 1100 to 1500), and Modern English (roughly from 1500 to the present). (2) Historical Events: The Old English period began with the invasion of the British Isles by English-speaking Anglo-Saxons from Europe, and ended with the arrival of Norman French invaders historically known as the Norman Conquest. The Middle English period is distinguished from the Old English period by the Norman Conquest, and from the Modern English period as the result of the cultural influence of the European renaissance movement.

15、语言变化的本质有什么特征?

All living languages change with time and language change is inevitable. As a general rule, language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. Language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar.

Although language change is universal, inevitable, and in some cases, vigorous, it is never an overnight occurrence, but a gradual and constant process, often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation.

16、语言变化的主要原因是什么?

(1) Sound assimilation is the physiological effect of one sound on another. It may cause loss of vowels or consonants, vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes. (2) Rule simplification and regularization are a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involving exceptional plural forms of nouns. For example, many English speakers tend to ignore the exceptional plural rules, just producing plural nouns such as “hoofs” instead of “hooves”. () Internal borrowing caused by the need to lessen the burden on memory. For example, by analogy to the pairs “reap/reaped” and “seem/seemed”, English speakers are heard saying “He sweeped the floor.” (4) Elaboration is motivated by the need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicativ e clarity or expressiveness. For example, Modern English has a stricter word order than Old English did. (5) Sociological triggers refer to those radical socio-political changes that lead to vigorous language changes. A typical example in the history of English is the Norman Conquest, a military event that marked the dawning of the Middle English period. (6) The continual process of cultural transmission across generations is another cause of language change. For example, while old people tend to call a ref rigerator “icebox”, the younger generation is more often heard speaking of a “fridge” as they have the desire to sound different from the older generation. (7) Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar constitutes another basic cause for language c hange. Children tend to acquire the simplified and regularized expressions, thus giving rise to language change in the long run.

17、为什么古英语的词序比现代英语灵活?

Old English has an elaborate case marking system to show if a constituent is the subject, object, and so on, of a sentence, while Modern English has a much weaker system for case marking and therefore has to rely heavily on more rigid word order to indicate grammatical relations.

18、历史语言学重新构建语言历史的目和方法各是什么?

Historical linguists aim at establishing, through the method of comparative reconstruction, the genetic relationship between and among various languages based on the evidence of systematic form-meaning resemblance in cognate items, and thereby to reconstruct the protolanguage of a language family.

19、什么是Grimm法则?

Jacob Grimm, A German scholar, found a series of consonant shifts that occurred in the history of the Germanic languages including English, Dutch, German, Swedish and Danish. The following are the three sets of consonant shifts that Grimm discovered: a. Voiced stops become voiceless. b → p d → t g → k b. V oiceless stops become fricatives. p → f t → θ k → x c. Voiced aspirates become deaspirated. bh → b dh →d gh →g Because these sound changes were so strikingly regular and law-like, they became known as Grimm’s Law. According to this law, the Germanic languages were subject to a rule that changed all voiceless stops into fricatives after they split off from other Indo-European languages.

第八章、社会语言学、Sociolinguistics

1、Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.

2、the speech community :In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as members of social groups. The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speech community.

3、A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. The term is believed to have originated from the pronunciation of the English word "business" in Chinese Pidgin English.

When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole(克里奥尔语,混合语).

4、Bilingualism:It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism.

5、Diglossia:The term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.

6、speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.

7、language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.

8、idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.

9、standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.

10、nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.

11、lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.

12、pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.

13、Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.

14、diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.

15、bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.

16、ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.

17、sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.

18、register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.

19、slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.

20、taboo: A lin guistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.

21、euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.

22、双语和双言现象有什么区别?

Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used in a speech community; whereas in a diglossic community, two varieties of language are used for different situations , one being more standard and higher, and used for more formal matters, and the other less prestigious, and used for colloquial situations.

23、标准英语优于非标准英语吗?

The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language. Nonstandard, or vernacular, languages are language varieties other than the standard language. (2) Standard language is not superior to nonstandard language at all. The designation of the standard language variety is motivated by historical and socio-political reasons and has nothing to do with any supposed linguistic superiority intrinsic to the grammatical components of that particular language variety. In view of language as an effective means of communication, no single dialect of a language, be it standard or nonstandard, is any more correct, any more logical, or any purer than any other dialect of the language. All dialects of a language are equally effective in expressing ideas.

24、洋泾浜语与克里奥耳语有什么区别?

A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication. A pidgin is used for some practical purposes, such as trading, by groups of people who do not know each other' s languages. It is not a native language of a particular region, but only a marginal language used by people whose cultures are sharply separated and whose business contact is very specialized .As a simplified language, a pidgin involves reductions in sounds, vocabulary and syntax. Although pidgins are simplified languages, they are rule-governed.

A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community. When a pidgin comes to be adopted by a population as its primary language, and children learn it as their first language, then the pidgin language is

called a creole. A creole involves expansion in sounds, vocabulary and syntax. Creoles are fully developed languages.

25、什么是地域变体、社会变体、文体变体和个人言语?

Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from. Regional variation of language is the most discernible and definable. When all social groups in a single geographical area speak one particular dialectal variety of a language that shares the same linguistic features and is distinguishable from any other linguistic system of a different geographical location, that speech variety is an instance of regional variation.

Social variation is the speech variation according the social factors. Consciously or unconsciously, our social backgrounds exert a shaping influence on our choice of linguistic features that are appropriate to our social identities. Social variation gives rise to sociolects which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories. These categories reflect our socioeconomic, educational , occupational and ethnic background, as well as our sex and age.

Stylistic variations are intra-speaker differences associated with the speech situation: who is speaking to whom about what under what circumstances for what purpose. Stylistic variation in a person s speech, or writing, usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation. Style can also refer to a particular person' s use of speech or writing at all times, or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time.A particular register may be used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same occupation like doctors, teachers, and lawyers, or the same interests, such as stamp collectors, football fans. A particular register often distinguishes itself from other registers by having a number of distinctive words, by using words or phrases in a particular way, and sometimes by special grammatical constructions, such as scientific language, or legal language.

Idiolectal variation: When an individual speaks, what is actually produced is a unique language system of the speaker, expressed within the overall system of a particular language. This variation is idiolectal variation. Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect .

26、过度使用委婉语有什么消极影响?

An excessive use of euphemism may have negative effects. As a matter of fact, many euphemisms have become cliches that are to be avoided in formal speech and writing. They also tend to be wordy and to give writing a timid quality. In addition, euphemism can be evasive or even deceitful. Because they are often improperly used to obscure the intended meaning, many people find them offensive and prefer plain language

第九章、心理语言学psycholinguistics

1、psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.

2、cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.

3、brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.

4、linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.

5、dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks

6、right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.

7、critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to p uberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.

8、linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.

9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion

10、subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvoca l speech”. of linguistic relativism.

11、什么是Sapir-Whorf 假设?

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism.

12、为什么说语言不能决定思维?

1) Words and meaning.The relationship between the name and the meaning of a word is quite arbitrary. Labeling a natural phenomenon or an object is not fundamental to a conceptual system. The fact that English has only one name for snow does not mean that English speakers cannot perceive differences in varieties of snow. Similarly, it does not follow that, because a language lacks a word, its speakers therefore cannot grasp its concept.

2) Grammatical structure .The syntactic system of a language and the perceptual system of the speakers of that language do not have the kind of interdependent relationship. Many grammatical features of a language are purely superficial aspects of linguistic structure.

3) Translation .Successful translation between languages can be made. If two languages have radically different conceptual systems, then translation from one language to another is impossible

13、Second language acquisition

If languages have different conceptual systems, then a speaker of one language will be unable to learn the other language because he lacks the right conceptual system. However, since people can learn radically different languages, those languages couldn' t have different conceptual systems.

Bilingualism is another good case in point. There are numerous cases of successful bilingual speakers across the globe. Although these people are proficient in two languages that are not genetically related, they do not have "double minds" equipped with two different systems of thought. Like monolinguals, bilingual or multilingual speakers have a consistent conceptual-perceptual system of the physical world.

14、Language and world views

The language system does not necessarily provide specifics of one' s world views. On the one hand, people speaking the same language may have different world views, including political, social, religious, scientific and philosophical views. On the other hand, people speaking different languages may share similar political, social, religious, scientific or philosophical views. Moreover, one language can describe many different world views, as is evident in the case of successful translation.

15、什么是大脑的单侧化?

The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization. The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational. That is, brain lateralization is genetically programmed, but takes time to develop. During development, the two sides of the brain become specialized for different functions and lateralization takes place. It is a commonly held view that lateralization is an evolutionary precondition of the development of superior intelligence as well as a precondition of language acquisition .

16、大脑的语言中枢有哪几个区?各自的功能可能是什么?

Research findings have shown that language processing centers are not situated in a single area of the left hemisphere, but several such as Broca' s area, Wernicke' s area and the angular gyros.

Broca's area is the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere. This part is crucial for word finding and syntax processing. The damage to this part results in a speech production deficit such as word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax.

Wernicke's area is another responsible for processing language. This area is crucial for language understanding. The damage to this part may result in the speech deficits such as a severe loss of understanding even though their hearing is normal. The patients produce fast and fluent speech with good intonation and pronunciation, but their content ranges from mildly inappropriate to complete nonsense, often unintelligible. They use very general terms, even in response to specific requests for information.

The angular gyrus: The angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke' s area. The angular gyrus is the language center responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa. This area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, and for the comprehension of written language , all of which require connections between visual and speech regions.

17、两耳分听研究证明了什么?

Dichotic listening tests involve simultaneously presenting, through ear-phones, two different auditory signals, one to the right ear and the other to the left ear. The test shows that stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This proves the hypothesis that a signal coming in the right ear will go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere.

The test also proves that the left hemisphere is not superior for processing all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of the view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that it is where language centers reside.

18、语言对思维的影响可能是什么?

Language does not so much determine the way we think as it influences the way we perceive the world and recall things, and affects the ease with which we perform mental tasks. That is, language may be used to provide new ideas, bring about a change in beliefs and values, solve problems, and keep track of things in memory.

It is evident that to the degree of success that language functions as an indispensable medium of information storage and retrieval, it can lead language users to be predisposed to act and perceive in certain ways rather than in others. In conclusion, language by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its convenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions, memory tasks, and other verbal and nonverbal behavior of human beings.

第十章、语言习得language acquisition

1、language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.

2、telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.

3、holo phrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.

4、acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.

5、learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.

6、language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.

7、positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.

8、negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.

9、contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.

10、interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.

11、formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.

12、instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.

13、integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.

14、acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation

15、Krashen是如何区分习得和学习的?

According to Stephen Krashen, language acquisition is contrasted with language learning on the assumption that these are different processes.

According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. Learning, however, is a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. It is recognized that children acquire their native language without explicit learning. A second language, Krashen argues, is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2 learner. A rule can be learned before it is internalized (i.e., acquired), but having learned a rule does not necessarily prevent having to acquire it later.

16、为什么说母语习得是语法规则的习得?

In principle, no human brain can store all the words and expressions of a language. What happens is that when processing the language they hear, children construct the grammar and make sense of the expressions according to the grammar. When producing utterances, they follow the internalized grammatical rules. Without the knowledge of the productive rules, it would be impossible for language users to produce and understand an unlimited number of sentences which they have never heard before.

17、在母语习得中,语言输入起什么样的作用?

For language to be eventually acquired, children must be provided with an appropriate linguistic environment in which they have access to language data and opportunities to interact with the input.

18、刻意的教学对母语习得有什么作用?

For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction on the part of adults. In natural settings, parents rarely correct young children s utterances that violate the rules of the grammar, still less do they go about teaching explicitly the correct forms of the language, although some parents believe that they constantly instruct their children to speak grammatical sentences. Even if they do, there is no convincing evidence that children need such instruction. In fact, parents often fail in their attempt to teach children grammatical rules.

Of course, this is not to say that instruction is altogether useless in child language development from the stage of a babbler to that of a fluent speaker. A certain amount of conscious instruction on the part of parents and peers may have some effect on the language of a child. But the available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best.

19、模仿在母语习得中的作用是什么?

At one time, it was widely believed that children learned language by simply imitating the speech of those around them. We now know that this cannot be true, since many utterance types produced by children do not closely resemble structures found in adult speech. . If children learn their native tongue by imitating their parents, how can we account for the utterances that are typical of children' s language, such as the plural form "my foots," the past tense forms of " I eated," and the negative construction of “No the sun shining”? It is impossible that children imitate these structures from adults because they are never heard in adult c onversations. In addition, Children with speech impairment for neurological or physiological reasons learn the language spoken to them and understand what is said. A more reasonable explanation is that children are attempting to construct and generalize their own grammatical rules.

Some young language learners do seem to make selective use of imitation, but they do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted ways to improve their linguistic skills. The point is that imitation plays at best a very minor role in the child' s mastery of language.

20、在儿童母语习得过程中,纠错起什么样的作用?

It was once assumed that children received constant correction for using a "bad" grammar and rewards when using a "good" grammar. It was also assumed that children learned to produce correct sentences because they were positively reinforced when they said something right and negatively reinforced when they said something wrong. According to Behaviorist learning theory, children are believed to gradually assume correct forms of the language of their community when their "bad" speech gets corrected and when their good speech gets positively reinforced.

Researchers have found that correction is not a key factor in child language development as they were claimed to be. When adults do attempt to correct children s grammatical errors and the correct form is repeated, their efforts seem to have little effect, or simply doom to failure because children often do not know what the problem is and continue to use a personally constructed form. Children Reinforcement has been found to occur usually in children' s pronunciation or reporting of the truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.

21、第一语言习得经过哪些主要阶段?

(1) The prelinguistic stage: at this babbling stage, the sounds and syllables that children utter are as yet meaningless. (2) The

one-word stage: at this stage, children learn that sounds related to meanings. They use one-word utterances, or holophrastic sentences to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech. () The two-word stage: at this stage, children are heard uttering two-word expressions in a variety of combinations. (4) The multiword stage: at this stage, the salient feature of the utterances is the variation in strings of lexical morphemes. It is normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an operating vocabulary of more than 2,000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.

22、什么是比较分析法?

Contrastive Analysis was developed in order to identify the areas of learning difficulty. The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language systems, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make. Given this approach, it was hypothesized that L2 errors were predominantly the result of negative transfer, or mother tongue interference and second language learning was believed to be a matter of overcoming the differences between LI and L2 systems.

23、什么叫中继语?

SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner's interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage. This is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA. Specifically, interlanguage consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner's native and target languages. It represents the learner' s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one' s LI competence to the target language competence. As a type of linguistic system in its own right, interlanguage is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and communicative strategies of the learner. If learners were provided sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and opportunities to interact with language input, their interlanguage would develop gradually in the direction of the target language competence.

24、刻意教学对第二语言学习有什么作用?

Although formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA, it does provide opportunities to receive comprehensible input, and enables the classroom learner to perform a wider range of linguistic tasks than the naturalistic learner and thereby accelerates the rate of acquisition. There is considerable evidence to indicate that L2 learners, particularly adult beginners, benefit from the classroom setting, for they are much more likely to obtain the adjusted qualitative input needed for acquisition. In addition, grammar instruction, course materials and the "teacher talk" are all prepared to meet various stages of development, providing the kind of language features that learners are ready to acquire.

Students with more formal instruction are found to have scored higher on proficiency tests than those with less. On the other hand, one should note that formal instruction has a powerful delayed effect.

25、有哪些个人因素影响第二语言的习得?

There are a number of factors relating to the learner that potentially influence the way in which a second language is acquired. (1) The optimum age for second language acquisition occurs during the early years of one’s life before puberty. (2) Motivation is the learner’s overall goal or orientation. Instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional, i.e. to use it as an instrument for the purpose of, for instance, securing a desirable job. Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social, i.e. to integrate oneself with the second language community. (3) Acculturation is a process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community. According to this view, the acquisition of a second language involves and is dependent on the acquisition of the culture of the target language community. It has been hypothesized that successful language learning is more likely when learners succeed in acculturating to the second language society. (4) Learner’s personality also influences the SLA. They are extroverted and introverted learners. It is recognized that extroverted learners are likely to achieve better oral fluency. To sum up, learner factors contribute to the success of SLA.

现代语言学词汇表

abbreviation缩写法

acculturation语言文化移入

acoustic phonetics声学语言学

acronym词首字母缩略词

address term称谓语

addresser发话人

addressee受话人

adjacency毗邻

Adjacency Condition毗邻条件

Adjacency Parameter毗邻参数

Affix词缀

Affixation加词缀法

Affricate塞擦音

Afroasiatic非亚语系

agreement rule一致关系规则

allophone音位变体

alveolar齿龈音

alveolus齿龈

angular gyrus角形脑回

antonymy反义现象

antonym反以词

apocope词尾音脱落

aphasia失语症

aphasic失语症患者

applied linguistics应用语言学arbitrariness任意性

argument论元

articulatory phonetics发音语音学articulatory variable发音变项

aspiration送气

assimilation同化

approximation近似化

auditory phonetics听觉语音学Austronesian…语系

Babbling咿呀学语

back-formation逆向构词法

back vowel后元音

Behaviorism行为主义

Behaviorist learning theory行为主义学习理论Behaviorist Psychology行为主义心理学Bilabial双唇音

Bilingualism双语现象

Black English黑人英语

Blending混合法

Borrowing借用

bound morpheme黏着语素

brain lateralization大脑左右半球侧化branching node分叉点

broad transcription宽式音标

Broca’s area布罗卡区

caretaker speech保姆语

case格

Case Condition格条件

case marking格标志

causative verb使役动词

central vowel中元音

cerebral cortex大脑皮层

cerebral plasticity大脑弹性

channel渠道

classical language古典语言

clipping略写法

closed class word封闭类词

code代码

code-switching代码切换

cognate同源词

co-hyponyms并列下义词

coinage创新词

color word色彩词

combinational rule组合规则

commissives承诺类

communicative competence交际能力comparative reconstruction比较重建法competence语言能力

complement补语

complement construction补足语complementarity互补性反义现象complementary distribution互补分布

complex sentence复合句componential analysis成分分析法components of meaning意义成分compound word复合词compounding复合法computational linguistics计算语言学concept概念

conceptualist view意念观consonant辅音

constituent成分

constituent structure成分结构constraint制约

construction结构

content word实词

context语境;上下文contextualism语境论

Contrastive Analysis对比分析法conversational implicature会话含义co-operative principle合作原则coordinate sentence并列句creativity创造性

critical period关键期;临界期cultural transmission文化传播declaration宣告类

deep structure深层结构

dental齿音

derivation派生法

derivational morpheme派生语素derivative派生词

descriptive linguistics描写语言学design feature识别特征determiner限定词

diachronic linguistics历时语言学diacritics变音符号

dialect方言

dialectal synonym方言同义词dichotic listening test两耳分听测试diglossia双言现象

diphthong复合元音Directionalilty Parameter方位参数Directives指令类

Displacement不受时空限制的特性distinctive feature区别性特征

D-structure深层结构

duality of structur结构二重性e double articulation结构二重性embedded clause子句

emotive meaning表情意义entailment含义

entity实体

epenthesis插入音

Error Analysis错误分析法euphemism委婉语

evaluative meaning评价意义expressives表达类

factive predicate叙述性谓词

family tree谱系树

feature symbol特征标记

features of meaning意义特征

finite clause定式字句

finite verb定式动词

formalize形式化

fossilization语言僵化

framework框架

free morpheme自由语素

fricative擦音

front vowel前元音

function word虚词

functional shift功能性转换

functor element起功能作用成分

gender性

Generative Grammar生成语法

Generative Semantics生成语义学

genetic predispotion基因先天条件

genetic relationship亲缘关系

glide滑音

glottal喉音

glottis声门

graddabl opposites可分等级的反义词

grammaticality语法性

grammatical meaning语法意义

Great V owel Shift元音大变位

hard palate硬腭

head核心词

hemispheric dominance for language大脑半球的语言优势hierarchical structure层次结构

high variety高层次变体

historical comparative linguistics历史比较语言学historical linguistics历史语言学

holophrastic sentence独词句

homography同形

homonymy同音异义;同形异义

homophony同音异义

hyponymy下义关系

hyponym下义词

idiolect个人语言特点

illocutionary act言外形为

inconsistency自相矛盾

Indo-European印欧语系

infinitive marker不定式标记

inflection曲折变化

inflectional morpheme曲折语素

input输入

instrumental motivation工具性学习动机

intake接受

integrativ emotivation介入性学习动机

interference干扰

interlanguage语际语

internalize内在化

International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标interpersonmal communication人际交际

intuition语调

labeled (unlabeled) tree diagram加标记树形图

labial唇音

LAD语言习得机制

language acquisition语言习得

language behavior语言行为

language center语言中枢

language faculty语言机制

language family语系

language perception语言感知

language planning语言规划

language variation语言变异

larynx喉

lax vowel松元音

level层;平面

level of language语言层次

lexical category词类

lexical structure词汇结构

lexicology词汇学

lexicon词汇

linear structure线性结构

linguistic competence语言能力

linguistic determinism语言决定论linguistic lateralization语言侧化linguistic performance语言运用linguistic relativism语言相对论linguistic repertoire全部语言变体linguistic taboo禁忌语

linguistics语言学

liquid流音

loan word外来词

localization定位

locutionary act言内行为

low variety低层次变体

manner of articulation发音方法

matrix clause主句

maxim of manner方式准则

maxim of quality质量准则

maxim of quantity数量准则

maxim of relation关联准则

meaning意义

meaningfulness有意义

meaning relation意义关系

mentalism心理主义

mentalistic theory精神论

message信息

metathesis语音变位

Middle English中世纪英语

minimal pair最小对立对

Modern English现代英语Monophthong单元音

Morpheme词素

morphlogical rule形态学规则morphology形态学

mother tongue母语

Move α移动α规则

movement rule移位规则

naming theory命名论

narrow transcription严式音标

narrowing of meaning词义缩小

nasal cavity鼻腔

nasality鼻音化

nasalize鼻音化

natural route of development自然发展轨道negator否定词

neurolinguist神经语言学家

neuron神经元

no-place predication空位述谓结构object宾语

Old English古英语

one-place predication一位述谓结构optimum age最佳学习年龄

oral cavity口腔

overextension扩展过度overgeneralization概括过度

overt thought有声思维

palatal腭音

paralinguistic副语言学的parameter参数

performance语言运用performance error语言运用错误perlocutionary act言后行为pharyngeal cavity咽腔

phone音素

phoneme音位

phonemic contrast音位对立phonetic feature语音特征

phonetics语音学

phonological rule音位规则phonology音位学

phrasal category词组类

phrase structure rule短语结构规则pidgin洋泾浜语

place of articulation发音部位

plosive爆破音

polysemy多义性

postpone后移

prepose前移

postvocalic元音后的

pragmatics语用学

predicate谓语

predication述谓结构

predication analysis述谓结构分析prefix前缀

presprictive (grammar)规定语法presupposition前提

proposition命题

prepositional content命题内容protolanguage原始语psycholinguistics心理语言学puberty青春期

qualifying predication修饰性述谓结构Received Pronunciation标准发音Recursiveness循环性

Reference所指语义

referring expression所指名词register语域

relational opposites关系反义词representation表达;呈现representatives阐述类

response反应

retroflex卷舌音

rewrite rule重写规则

rounded vowel圆唇元音

SAE标准美国英语

sapir-Whorf hypothesis…假设

second language acquisition第二语言习得segment切分成分

semantic anomaly语义异体

semantic deviation语义变异

semantic broadening语义广义化semantic narrowing语义狭义化semantic shift语义演变

semantics语义学

semantic structure语义结构

semantic triangle语义三角

sense意义

sequential rule序列规则

setting背景;环境

sexist language性别歧视语

sibilant咝音

simple sentence简单句

Sino-Tibetan汉藏语系

situational dialect语域方言

sociolect社会方言

sociolinguistics社会语言学

soft palate软腭

species-specific capacity物种特有能力specifier指示语

spectrograph频谱仪

speech act言语行为

speech community言语社区

speech variety言语变体

S-structure表层结构

standard language标准语

stem词干

stimulus刺激

stop爆破音

stress重音

structural constituency结构成分性structural linguistics结构主义语言学subject主语

subordinate predication主从述谓性结构subscript下标

subvocal predication无声言语

suffix后缀

superordinate上坐标词suprasegmental feature超切分特征surface structure表层结构

synchronic linguistics共时语言synonymy同义词

syntactic ambiguity句法歧义

syntactic category句法类型

syntactic rule句法规则

syntax句法

taboo word禁忌词

target language目标语

tautology同义反复

teeth ridge齿龈隆骨

telegraphic speech电报式言语

tense and aspect时和体

tense vowel紧元音

tone音调;声调

tone language声调语言

语言学学习方法.

语言学的学习方法 语言理论研究的对象是语言,和其他学科一样,它是由对语言的认识及基于这种认识对语言进行研究的一系列具体方法和相关概念交织在一起的理论体系。语言学又是一个动态的学科,人们对于语言的认识还远远没有完成,因而关于语言的许多问题并没有直接的答案,还需要我们不断地去思考和探索。在学习本课程的过程中,有这样几个方面的问题值得注意:首先是术语这个“拦路虎”。作为一门科学,语言学需要运用一套术语来建立一些科学的概念。学习语言学就不可避免地要掌握这些概念并能够用科学的语言进行表述。掌握术语和概念的根本方法在于理解,包括每个概念的定义和所指的语言现象,以及各个概念在语言学理论体系中所处的地位。只有充分理解了这些基本概念,才能对语言有比较理性的认识,用于指导语言实践。 其次是语言的理论问题。由于语言自身的复杂性和人们对于语言的了解还不够深入,有关语言的理论非常繁杂。尽管本科阶段的教材不可能包括全部的语言理论,但在学习过程中学生仍然会遇到考察同一语言现象的不同方法。比如对于发音中的同化现象,语音学和音系学就有不同的考察方法;句子的意义问题也有语义和语用两种看法;语法的研究方法在本教材中就介绍了多种,等等。这些不同的理论和方法不过是从不同角度去考察语言的现象,比如,that’s an interesting hat这句话,从语义的角度,我们只需要解释其字面的意义,而从语用的角度我们就要考虑说话人的场合、语气和态度,并据此判断这句话是称赞还是贬斥。学习和接受不同的理论能够训练我们看问题的全面性,帮助我们提高思辨能力。 第三是语言研究的方法问题。方法的根基是理论,有什么样的理论就有什么 样的方法。作为科学,语言学理论必须具有穷尽性、一致性和简洁性。研究语言的方法无外乎有两种:一是演绎,二是推理。我们可以通过收集语言事实找出语言的规律,也可以通过建立某种假设再用语言事实进行验证。不论使用哪一种方法,都必须以语言事实为依据。作为语言专业的学生,平时要注意观察语言现象,结合所学的语言学理论、概念和方法不断思考,不断验证,提高自己的辨别能力,得出自己的结论。篇二:语言学的学科性质与学习方法 语言科学从19世纪初创立以来,作为独立的学科发展到现在,对其相邻学科产生过一系列具有深远意义的影响。这些影响表现在以下几个方面。 一、本体语言学与文学理论文学批评中―文本‖ 瑞典语言学家索绪尔在其名著《普通语言学教程》中将言语过程、言语环境、言语交际两方的理机制摈弃于语言研究之外,从而使语言研究从纷繁的事实中解脱也来,为结构语言学研究确定了纯粹的稳态的研究对象,奠定了结构学的发展基础,对语言研究有很大促进。与语言现象一样,文学现象也是一个十分纷繁的现象,一部小说,一百个人看了,会有一百样的评论与认识。于是,它们在语言研究方法的启发下,对文学现象进行剥离,建立了―文本‖(txet)的概念,从而对文学理论与文学批评有所推动。 二、语言学中的音位与文学理论中的―原型‖ 音位与音位学的创立,是结构语言学的一大发明,因为它发现了人是用不同的语音表达同一意义并从不同的语音中领略同一意义这一事实。以此为契机,文学家也在不同情景、不同的情节、不同的人物、不同主题的文学作品中,发现了文学现象中也有类似于音位的东西,这就是所谓―原型‖,以此建立起来的文学批评,称之为―原型批评‖。 三、语言学与符号学 结构语言学的创始人索绪尔发现语言的音义之间,有一种符号关系,语音就是可以表现某个特定内容的能指,语义就是由能指所表达的所指。它们的结合是任意的,但具有一种表达与被表达的关系。于是,有关符号学的理论便成为一种时髦,人们从各自的学科,从不同的角度建立起了各种各样的符号学。

中国语言学史复习资料

中国语言学史期末复习资料 一、名词解释 1、雅学:《尔雅》首创按意义分类编排的体例和多种释词方法,对后代词书、类书的 发展产生了很大的影响,后人模仿《尔雅》创作了一系列以“雅”为书名的词书, 如《小尔雅》、《广雅》、《通雅》等,而研究雅书又成为一门学问,被称为“雅学”’。 2、小学:“小学”这个名词最初跟学校有关系的,《大戴礼记》云:“及太子少长,知 妃色,则入于小学。小学者所学之官也”;汉代小学指童蒙识字课,也即语言文字 方面的学问;隋唐时代小学概念扩大;唐代以后“小学”成为文字学、音韵学、训 诂学的总称。 3、《切韵》:隋代陆法言所著,是韵书中影响最大的一部,按四声分卷,共五卷;平 生分上下两卷,上、去、入各一卷,共分韵部193部,记音简略,先释义,后记音。 在汉语音韵学当中,《切韵》被看作是整个语音史的中枢,又是研究历代语音系统 和现代各方言因素的首要研究系统。 4、《广韵》:全名《大宋重修广韵》,陈彭年等奉赦编撰,这是目前保留下来最早的, 最完整的韵书,根据前代《切韵》、《唐韵》等韵书修订而成,共分为五卷(平声分 上下两卷,上、去、入各一卷)分206韵。 5、《干禄字书》:是唐中的一部正字书,作者颜元孙。干禄,求禄位,学好写字就能 求得禄位,是科举时代的字体标准。 6、《说文解字》:由东汉经学家、文字学家许慎所著,简称《说文》,根据文字的形体, 创立540个部首。系统阐述汉字的造字规律,是中国第一部即后代所说的字典。 7、因声求义:是传统的训诂方法之一,是指通过对汉字声音线索的分析来探求字义。 8、字书:字数是研究字形和根据字形以考证音义的书,包括(1)学童识字课本,如 《急就篇》等;(2)解释汉字形体、读音和意义的书,如(汉)许慎的《说文解字》,(梁)顾野王的《玉篇》,(宋)司马光等的《类篇》,(清)《康熙字典》等。(3) 刊正字书的书,如(唐)颜元孙的《干禄字书》,(宋)张有的《复古编》等。 9、秦代三书:李斯《仓颉篇》、赵高《爰历篇》、胡母敬的《博学篇》在历史上被称为 秦代三书。“秦代三书”的社会作用有两个:一是规范了文字书写形体,二是成就 了一部权威的蒙学知识教材。 10语文学:是文字或书面语言的研究,特别注重在文献资料的考证和文字的训诂,这种研究比较零碎和缺乏系统性。 11 语言学:研究对象是语言本身(口语与书面语),研究的结果可以得出科学的、系统 的、全面的语言理论。 12 声调:普通话中有四个声调,通常叫四声即阴平、阳平、上声、去声。 13反切:古代的一种记音方法,用两个字拼出另一个字的读音,取上字之声母,用下字之韵母及声调,拼出被切字的读音。 14 《中原音韵》:元.周德清著,他认为“言语一科,欲作乐府,必正名语,欲正名语 必思中原之音。”根据元朝的北曲用韵,把韵部分析归纳为19韵部。 15 《玉篇》:南朝梁.顾野王撰,是中国古代一部按汉字形体,分部编排的字书,是我 国第一部按部首分门别类的汉字字典。 16 大小徐:指徐铉、徐渭兄弟二人,两人俱精通文字,对说文有着重要的研究,号“大 小徐”。 17 籀文:古汉字中一种书体的名称,西周末和春秋初的文字,字体与秦篆相近,又称 “大篆”、“籀书”。 18 古文:指战国时期盛行于六国的文字。

语言学发展史[1]

语言学作为一门独立的学科(即为语言本身的目的而研究语言)起始于19世纪上半叶,是随着历史比较语言学的出现而诞生的.在一个多世纪里,语言学的发展,概括起来说,经历了四个主要阶段,可分别以语言研究中先后占据重要地位的历史比较语言学派,结构主义语言学派,转换生成语法学派和功能主义语言 学派的四大学术思潮为其标志. 1历史比较语言学 历史比较语言学指的是采用历史比较的方法对语言之间的系统对应现象进行解释,从而揭示语言的历史渊源,语言的演变规律及其亲缘关系. 历史比较语言学的工作最初是由在东印度公司任职的英国学者琼斯(W.Jones)开始的.琼斯在1786年首先提出了梵语同欧洲古希腊语,拉丁语有着共同的来源这一观点,但他并没能找出它们之间的语音对应 规律.因此,他的研究还不能算是真正的历史比较语言学. 一般认为,历史比较语言学的奠基人是19世纪丹麦的拉斯克(R.Rash),德国的葆朴(F.Bopp)和格林 (J.Grimm).这三位历史比较语言学的先驱广泛地调查了一大批诸如梵语,希腊语,拉丁语,冰岛语,立陶 宛语,峨特语等古代和现代语言,对它们的词形作了系统的比较,找出了其中的语音对应规律;由此确定 了它们之间的亲缘关系. 另一位影响较大的历史比较语言学家是德国的施来赫尔(A.Schleicher).他在前人研究的基础上致力于古印欧语的重建工作,并提出了所谓谱系树理论(Family Tree Theory).该理论认为,一个语系就好像一棵树,亲语是树干,子语是树枝,构成一个谱系树.谱系树理论的提出是历史比较语言学的一大进展.一个语系从假设的原始母语逐步演变到各种语言的历史过程一目了然地展现了出来. 19世纪下半叶出现了以保罗(H.Paul)等人为代表的新语法学派(Neogrammarians),该学派的出现将历史比较语言学的研究又推进了一大步.新语法学派认为,历史比较语言学不应该只是对语言变化做单纯的 描写,而应该联系语言的使用者探讨语言变化的本质.他们把语言变化的规律归纳为两条极其重要的原则:一是语音规则无例外论,二是类比原则. 随着科学的发展和语言研究的不断深入,历史比较语言学的一些局限性,如孤立地研究语言单位而忽视 了语言的体系性,强调对语言现象的历史比较而忽视了语言的整体性等,便明显地暴露出来了.到了20世纪初,语言的研究,在理论和方法上,都酝酿着一场重大的变革. 2 结构主义语言学 1911年是语言学发展史上比较重要的一年.这一年的6月和7月间,早年曾从事过印欧语言历史比较研究的瑞士语言学家索绪尔(F.de Saussure)在日内瓦大学系统地传授了他本人语言学理论中的精华部分——静态语言学(Static Linguistics).1916年,也就是在索绪尔去世三年后,他的学生巴利(Charles Bally)和薛施蔼(Albert Sechehaye)根据讲稿和听课笔记整理出版了《普通语言学教程》(Course in General Linguistics)一书.这部著作自出版以来,流传之广,影响之深,在语言学史上是罕见的.美国语言学家霍凯(C.Hockett,1965)曾把《普通语言学教程》称誉为现代语言学史上的四项重大突破之一.该书中提出的一系列理论突破了历史比较语言学的局限性,开创了语言学中结构主义语言学的新纪元. 索绪尔语言理论的主要特点是把语言看成是由语言各个成分之间的关系组成的结构系统.换句话说,索 绪尔认为,语言是一个大系统,其中有词汇,语法,语音三个小系统;而这三个小系统各自又有许许多多彼此有联系的成分.另外,索绪尔对语言的研究与历史比较语言学不同之处还体现在他的三个二分法之中,即语言和言语,聚合关系和组合关系,共时研究和历时研究等的区分. 在索绪尔学说的直接或间接影响下,语言研究中出现了许多不同的结构主义学派,如布拉格学派,哥本哈根学派,美国描写语言学派等.各结构主义学派在语言研究中虽侧重的方面有所不同,但是他们都是采用共时的研究方法,对语言系统本身的结构成分及其相互关系从不同方面进行描写. 在众多的结构主义派别中,影响最大的是美国描写语言学派.该学派由美国人类学家鲍阿斯(F.Boas)所 始创,但最有影响的人物当推布龙菲尔德(L.Bloomfield).1933年布龙菲尔德出版了《语言论》(Language)一书,对这一学派的理论和方法做了规范性的描写.他主张语言学的任务就是要客观地,系统地描写可以观察到的语言素材,以此来揭示语言各因素之间的关系.在研究方法上,他们只注重语言形式的分析,而 忽视意义的研究;认为语义不属语言研究的范围.这个学派对语言研究的最大贡献在于探索出了一套相 当严谨的语言描写方法,即以分布和替代为标准对语言单位进行层层切分和归类的描写方法. 3 转换生成语法 1957年,美国麻省理工学院的乔姆斯基(N.Chomsky)出版了《句法结构》(Syntactic Structure)一书,在语言学界引起了一场革命,从而开创了语言研究的转换生成语法时期.虽然在语言研究方法和原则方面,乔姆斯基继承了结构主义的一些特征,例如哈里斯所创造的转换理论,雅柯布逊的语言共性理论,以

语言学概论复习要点

合作原则—— 基本点:交际双方为使交际能够顺利下去,双方必须合作。 具体内容由美国语言学家格赖斯提出,其认为交际双方的合作,必须遵循四项准则: (1)量的准则:所说的话提供的信息要与交际的目的相适应,不超出不少于交际目的需要(2)质的准则:所说的话是真实的 (3)相关准则:所说的话同对方的话题相关联 (4)方式准则:说话简明清楚 问多答少、言语晦涩、含混啰嗦等都不利于交际的进行。 变异概说—— 任何一种语言都不是绝对划一的统一体,语言随着时间、地点和环境的改变而变化,处于一种缓变的状态中。 语言在共时层面的差异称为语言的差异。 语言的变异受到三种情况的影响: (1)说话者的地区背景和社会背景(母语、教育程度、职业等) (2)产生言语行为的实际情景,需要采取什么言语表达方式和超语言特征 (3)谈论的话题是什么 语言的变异分为三类: (1)地域变异:形成地域方言,即属于某一地域的群体使用的语言 (2社会变异:指不同社会地位、职业、行帮、种族、性别的区别在语言使用上产生的差异(3)功能变异:指说话人为了某一目的使受话人受到影响、产生反应而使用的言语方式 地域变异—— 语言的地域变异表现为地域方言,包括次方言,与之相对的有共同语和规范语言。 (方言—次方言—土语) 方言变异的表现(主要表现在语音和词汇上) 1、语音方面 闽方言、粤方言的变异较大,吴方言次之,客家方言、赣方言、湘方言又次之。 2、词汇方面 主要表现为同一意义用不同词语表现。 3、语法方面 主要表现在词序、虚词方面。粤方言中这种双音节词中修饰性词素位于被修饰性词素之后,是语法上的一个特点。例如:客人—人客、干菜—菜干 方言的形成与发展 汉语言发源地:黄河流域。秦汉以前,楚国南迁,吴方言、湘方言可能在东南部地区形成方言的形成除了由于移民、山川阻隔、政治经济的原因外,与异民族语言的接触和土著语言的混合也有一定的关系。 语言的分化和产生变异的程度,通常取决于共同语对方言的约束力。 方言发展的前途: 1、在社会封闭,甚至分裂的情况下,共同约束力减弱,语言分化的结果导致差别扩大,有可能形成独立的语言。 2、继续保持已有的地域差异状态,在地域范围内,优势扩大或者缩小自己的覆盖范围。 3、由于共同语的强大影响、社会的统一和发展,方言的使用范围逐渐缩小,或者方言本身逐渐向共同语靠拢。

认知语言学讲解

陈忠著 , 《认知语言学研究》 , 2005年 , 第1页 第一章认知语言学概说 第一节认知语言学的理论主张及其背景 20世纪80年代兴起于欧美,并以1989在德国杜伊斯堡召开的第一届国际认知语言学会议为准,标志着认知语言学正式成立。 认知语言学的哲学基础和理论主张与结构主义相对立,是通过对结构主义的反叛而建立发展起来的。 认知语育学研究的代表人物主要有: G.Lokoff;R.W Langacker ;C.Fillmore;M.Johnson; R.TayIor;Haiman,M.John;D.Geeraerts;P.Kay等。 戴浩一1985《时间顺序和汉语的语序原则》、1990《以认知为基础的汉语功能语法争议》;谢信一1991《汉语中的时间和意象》;沈家煊1995《“有界”与“无界”》、1999《转指和转喻》、1993《句法的象似性问题》;张敏l 998《认知语言学与汉语名词短语》;石毓智《语法的认知语义基础》,赵艳芳2001《认知语言学理论》;袁毓林1995《词类范畴的家族相似性》。 认知语自学的理论主张与结构主义和生成语法相对立。认知语言学的语言观是建立在经验主义或称为非客观主义哲学基础之上的。认知语言学认为,抽象的心智活动不能脱离身体经验和形体。认知结构与身体经验密切相关,并且以感知、动觉、经验为基础,思维具有想象性。概念要么来源于经验,要么通过隐喻、转喻和意象发展而来;思维具有完形件和整体性;语言符号不是直接对应于客观世界.而是与用科学概念结构保持一致。 关于语言能力的问题,认知诺言学认为,语言能力是人的一般认知能力的一个组成部分,语言不是自足的封闭系统。一方面语言的编码和解码过程以认知为基础,另一方面,语言在结构方面也参照人类概念知识、身体经验和话语功能。换言之,语言无论是在意义上还是在结构形式上,都是建立在人类概念知识、身体经验和话语功能基础之上的。语言不能脱离人类概念知识、身体经验和话语功能而独立运作。 就语义而言,用真值条件的形式逻辑描写语义是不够的,语义和使用者的知识系统密不可分。语义描写必须参照开放的知识系统。 语言知识和非语言知识之间没有绝对而明确的界限。语言能力跟一般认知能力是分不开的。 从语言内部层面来看,认知语言学认为,句法不是自足、自主的形式系统,句法跟词汇互参互动,相互制约,相互依存。不存在一个可以脱离语义、词汇意义独立运转的独立的句法系统。 关于句法是不是自足、自主的形式系统,这是认知语言学和结构主义语言学争执的焦点。以生成语法为代表的极端形式主义观点的基本主张,是句法自主论。该观点把句法看做是自主的系统.可以脱离语义独立运作。并且认为语百符号的编码具有任意性。 关于语吉符号有没有任意性的问题,历来颇有争议。索绪尔把符号内部的所指和能指之间的关系界定为任意性结合,但是大量的语言事实都对语言符号任意性这一观点提出了挑战。如:“大小、长短、左右、前后、高低”合乎正常范式和语感,而x“小大、短长、右左、后的、低高”却不正常。在“量级”表达形式方面,高量级和低量级之间往往不对称、不均衡,因此“量级”范畴的编码并不是任意的。在这种不对称、不均衡的背后,是认知动因在起制约作用。 无论是“量级”、空间、时间关系,还是其他方面,也无沦是汉语还是英语,语言都不是任意进行编码的。而且编码的依据也不是仅仅根据句法规则。

语言学及其研究方法

1 学方法、转换生成语言学方法和综合性的方法。指出了语言研究应由“表层结构”向“深层结构”转换, 通过循序渐进的层次对比研究,抓住寓于语言深部的综合特征, 从而准确把握对比中的语言特征, 充分发挥对比语言的对策性。 对比语言学(contrastive linguistics. Contrastive analysis) 在1980 年上海辞书出版社的《语言与语言学辞典》中, 将contrastive analysis 只译作“对比分析”, 许多属于对比语言学范畴的我国学者们的论著, 也大都冠以“比较”二字, 归在比较语言学的领域。也就是说, 对于对比语言学这门学科, 人们还缺乏充分认识。然而就方法论而言, 对比语言学是一门共时语言学(synchronic), 它只是共时地对两种或两种以上语言进行考查分析, 指出它们之间的语音、语法、词汇等各个部门里的同异点, 并努力运用哲学、心理学、民族学等各学科的知识与理论去说明这些同异点之所以产生的根源。 一、对比语言学的历史演变 虽然对比语言学的研究经历了较长的孕育期, 但真正的研究史只有短短的五十多年。如果要讨论对比语言学的雏形, 我们可以追溯到非常久远的年代。公元初年,佛教开始传入我国; 接着, 我们中华民族光辉灿烂的古代文化传播到日本、朝鲜等国, 形成了举世瞩目的汉字文化圈。在这种吸收消化异族文化与学习吸取异邦文明的过程中, 无疑将首先对其运载工具—— 语言进行研究, 而这种研究也只能是建立在同民族的语言比较对比的基础上。因此, 从这个意义上来说, 我国古代的先哲们译释佛教经典, 五六世纪的日本人“训读”我们的古文的工作都可以认为是对比性的。不过, 事实告诉我们, 这种译释或“训读”远远不是一种建立在严格的语言科学基础上的成体系的工作, 因此, 我们无从把它划入对比语言学的范畴。 而真正的对比语言学诞生于20 世纪50 年代, 它是结构主义语言理论和外国语教育发展的联合产物。19世纪末, 索绪尔树立起语言学史上第一座划时代的丰碑, 他的语言理论影响了包括布龙菲尔德在内的众多的语言学家。

中国语言学必读必备书目400种

中国语言学必读必备书目400种 北京大学语言学院推荐 (英)The Categories(范畴):亚里士多德 (英)THE DEVIL’S DICTIONARY(魔鬼词典)-- AMBROSE BIERCE(阿姆布诺斯·比尔斯) (英)The Foolish Dictionary(愚蠢的词典)-- Gideon Wurdz(吉顿·伍兹) (英)表述和意义:言语行为研究[美]塞尔[Searle,J.R.] (英)词汇、语义学和语言教育[英]哈切(Hatch,E (英)从语言学的角度看语言习得 (英)当代句法理论通览 (英)当代语义理论指南--[美]拉宾(Lappin,S.)著 (英)德里达--诺利斯 (英)汉语方言的连续变化变调模式--陈渊泉 (英)话语分析入门:理论与方法[美]吉(Gee,J.P.)著 (英)会说话的哺乳动物:心理语言学入门 (英)剑桥语言百科词典 (英)交际语言教学论 (英)句法:结构、意义与功能 (英)跨文化交际:语篇分析法[美]斯科隆(Scbllon,R.)等著 (英)历史语言学 (英)普通语言学教程--索绪尔 (英)乔姆司基的普通语言学教程 (英)人类语言学入门 (英)认知语言学入门 (英)社会语言学教程 (英)言语的萌发:语言的起源和进化 (英)言语行为:语言哲学论[美]塞尔(Searle,J.R.)著 (英)应用语言学研究方法与论文写作 (英)英诗学习指南:语言学的分析方法[英]利奇(Leech,G.N.)著 (英)语法化学说 (英)语料库语言学 (英)语料库语言学入门[新]肯尼迪(Kennedy,G.)著 (英)语言和人 (英)语言类型学与普通语法特征--Croft (英)语言论:言语研究导论--Sapir (英)语言迁移:语言学习的语际影响[美]奥德林(Odlin,T.)著 (英)语言心理学[美]卡罗尔(Carroll,D.W.)著 (英)语言学和第二语言习得 (英)语言学教程--Radford (英)语言学课题:语言研究实用指南 (英)语言学理论:对基要原著的语篇研究 (英)语言学入门[英]普尔(Poole,S.C.)著 (英)语言学习和语言使用中的错误:错误分析探讨

语言学概论重点总结

语言学概论重点总结 一、名词解释(4*6=24) 1、孤立语:孤立语又称词根语,其特点是缺乏形态变化,语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示,汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。例如,“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语,“他”是宾语,主要取决于词序。又如,“买菜”是述宾结构,“买的菜”是偏正结构,主要取决于虚词。汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化,一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语,词性都不曾发生变化。除了汉语外,属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。 2、屈折语:屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。内部屈折指通过词的语音交替(改变部分语音)来构成不同的语法形式,表示不同的语法意义;如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义,以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。 外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。例如英语的book(书,单数)在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书,复数)。 屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义,例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态,如works. 同样的语法意义,在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示,如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔),-e(noπe田地)。 屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧,如果去掉构型词缀,词根往往就不能成词,如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。 印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等,一般都属于屈折语,其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。 3、音位:是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位,是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。 音位本身并不含有任何意义。音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。如单个的/k/和/ae/或/t/是没有什么意义的,但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了“猫”的意义。因此,音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用,而没有表达意义的作用。 音位分析的目的是要把语言里数目繁多的语言归纳为数目有限的一套音位系统,分析音位的三基本原则是:对立、互补、语音相似。 音位可以分为音质音位和非音质音位两大类。一般把音素的音质角度分析归并出来的音位叫音质音位,因为它占有一个时段,所以又叫音段音位。除了音质以外,音高、音强、音长这些非音质形式也能区别词的语音形式,由这些韵律(音律)形式构成的音位叫非音质音位。又叫超音段音位。包括调位、重位、时位。 调位:主要由音高特征构成的音位叫调位,又叫声调。调位是汉藏语系诸语言中区别词的语言形式的重要手段之一。 重位:主要由音强特征构成的音位叫重位。重音在英语、俄语中是区别词的语音形式和词义的重要手段。构成重位的非音质特征是综合的。 时位:由音长特征构成的音位叫时位。长短音的区别主要表现在元音上,如广东话和许多少数民族语言里,时位都有区别词的语音形式和意义的作用。 4、语流音变就是指在连续的语流中某些语音成分受前后语音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。有时说话人由于种种原因调整语音的快慢、高低、强弱,也会造成语音的某种变化。

语言学中的研究方法

第34卷第6期 唐山师范学院学报 2012年11月 Vol.34 No.6 Journal of Tangshan Teachers College Nov. 2012 ────────── 收稿日期:2012-03-25 作者简介:申丽红(1975-),女,河北邯郸人,博士研究生,讲师,研究方向为理论语言学及语言教学。 -24- 语言学中的研究方法 申丽红1,2 (1. 中国传媒大学 文学院,北京 100021;2. 河北联合大学 外国语学院,河北 唐山 063000) 摘 要:语言学作为社会科学和自然科学的交叉学科,近年来有了长足的发展。各家学者秉承不同的语言学理论,采用不同的研究方法对语言进行了多方位的研究。本文从语言学理论的不同发展阶段对语言学研究方法做一梳理。 关键词:语言学;定量研究;定性研究 中图分类号: H 0-05 文献标识码: A 文章编号:1009-9115(2012)06-0024-03 Some Research Methods of Linguistics SHEN Li-hong 1,2 (1. College of Liberal Arts, The Communication University of China, Beijing 100021, China; 2. College of Foreign Languages, Hebei United University, Tangshan 063000, China) Abstract: Linguistics, as a cross-discipline between natural and social science, has developed well in recent years. Different scholars did some researches on language with different theories and from different angles. A summary about the research methods of linguistics is made. Key Words: linguistics; quantitative research; qualitative research 语言是人类特有的宝贵财产,是人类社会生活的重要组成部分。随着社会发展,文明进步,人们开始从不同角度探索语言的奥秘,以揭示形形色色的言语背后所隐藏的规律,从而形成了林林总总的语言学流派和语言学理论。 任何一门学科的研究方法对于一门学科的发展都是至关重要的。在语言学发展的不同阶段,不同的语言学流派以不同的哲学基础建立起自己的理论框架后,因其学科发展的不同时期以及不同的研究目的而选用不同的研究方法来进行语言学相关研究。 一、语言学发展简史 西方的语言学研究自古希腊始,希腊著名的哲学家苏格拉底(Socrates, BC 470-BC 399),柏拉图( Plato, BC 429-BC 347)和亚里士多德(Aristotle, BC 384- BC322)等通过对语言的辩论奠定了语言研究的哲学基础。此后语言学在西方历经中世纪、文艺复兴以及19世纪历史比较语言学的发展,随着一些人类学家、哲学家等相继加入语言学研究,语言学学科迅速发展。他们详细研究了语言的分类, 语言中的音变等,为现代语言学的诞生奠定了坚实的基础。 20世纪初,瑞士语言学家索绪尔提出的普通语言学理论使语言学真正成为了一门科学的学科。此后的布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国的结构主义学派基本上秉承了结构主义的衣钵,对语言的结构、音位等进行了详细的描写和切分。 20世纪50年代,乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky )提出了转换生成语法(Transformational-Generative Grammar )。转换生成语法彻底颠覆了传统的结构主义语法,推动语言学研究进入当代语言学时期。乔姆斯基认为人类获得语言的过程无论采用“白板说”还是“刺激-反应”论都不足以说明问题,以此提出了“先天性假设”(innateness hypothesis )。他认为人类的大脑先天被内置了一套“普遍语法”(universal grammar )或“语言普遍现象”(linguistic universals )。这种普遍语法在后天经验的触发下而形成各种各样的“个别语法”(particular grammar )。语言学家的任务就是运用数学的运算原理,运用各种规则逐步推导以

中国语言学家简介

中国著名的语言学家简介 岑麒祥主要研究方向为普通语言学和语言学史 《语言学史概要》是其最重要、影响最大的一部著作,也是我国第一部语言学史著作 陈望道中国著名教育家、修辞学家、语言学家,中国现代修辞学研究的开拓者和奠基人《修辞学发凡》第一部有系统的兼顾古话文今话文的修辞学著作 丁声树中国杰出的语言学家,词典编纂专家 编写《现代汉语词典》,《现代汉语语法讲话》 符淮青汉语词汇学、语义学、词典学研究 《现代汉语词汇学》 高名凯著名语言学家 与石安石主编的《语言学概论》观点平妥,简明通俗,至今仍被许多高等学院用为教材。 桂诗春著名语言学家和外语教育家,心理语言学、应用语言学、语言测试、统计语言学等 郭锡良主要著作有:《古代汉语》(三种)、《汉字古音手册》、《汉字知识》等著作10种。音韵方面也第一次提出了殷商音系的设想,为汉语语音史填补了一项空白。 何九盈中国古汉语、汉语音韵学专家 《中国现代语言学史》 胡明扬胡明扬的学术活动主要有两个方面:一是对现代汉语语法、汉语方言并结合汉语实际对语言理论的研究;一是向国内介绍国外语言学的理论和方法 《北京话初探》、《北京话的语气助词和叹词》 胡裕树汉语语法理论、现代汉语教学、语言文字辞书编纂 《现代汉语》、《今日汉语》、《汉语语法研究》 胡壮麟国外语言学、功能语言学、语用学、语篇分析、英语教学法、符号学、认知与隐喻《语言学教程》 黄伯荣现代汉语和汉语方言的研究,现代汉语的语音、文字、词汇、语法及汉语方言等方面《汉语方言语法类编》 蒋礼鸿著名语言学家、敦煌学家、辞书学家 《敦煌变文字义通释》、《义府续貂》 金兆梓著名语言学家、文史学家 《国文法之研究》 黎锦熙《新著国语文法》第一次科学地、系统地揭示了我国白话文内在的语言规律,是我国第一部完整的、具有自己独特体系的、将传统语法体系应用于现代汉语的专门著作。 李方桂李方桂的学术成就主要有以下三个方面:印第安语言的研究、侗台(壮侗)语族语言的研究、汉语和藏语的研究 参与翻译《中国音韵学硏究》(ps:《中国音韵学研究》是高本汉构拟中古音的代表作,陆续发 表于1915-1926间,中译本是由赵元任、李方桂、罗常培共同翻译的,在翻译中三位学者加了 注释和补订。该书影响极大,标志着中国现代音韵学史的开端) 李荣音韵学家、方言学家 《切韵音系》、《汉语方言调查手册》、创办了《方言》杂志 李行健主持完成国家规范标准项目《第一批异形词整理表》《现代汉语常用词表》 廖序东方言学、教学语法研究、楚辞研究 《现代汉语》、《汉语语言学书目答问》、《楚辞语法研究》 林焘汉语音韵学、现代语音学、汉语方言学、对外汉语教学等领域 《语音学教程》、《北京话的连读音变》、《北京语音实验录》

汉语言文学语言学概论复习要点

《语言学概论》复习要点 重点名词概念:语言学、普通语言学、专语语言学、共时语言学、历时语言学 一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位 三、语言学的基本类别 根据研究的对象的不同,语言学分为共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学。 四、语言学流派 各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可,注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派(也称美国描写语言学)都属于结构主义学派,是这一学派的三个分支。关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述,不作考试要求。 第一章言语的社会功能 本章须明确两个大的要点:语言的社会功能,即交际工具和思维工具;语言是一种社会现象。 主要名词概念:语言、社会、社会现象 第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具 一、语言是人类社会的交际工具 1.语言的交际功能:语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带,是社会成员互相之间交际和交流思想的工具,也是协调社会成员行动一致的工具。 2.语言是一种社会现象:语言是一种社会现象,和人类社会有着十分紧密的联系,没有人类社会,就没有语言,人类社会以外的社会无所谓语言。所谓社会现象是指那些与人类共同体的产生、存在和发展等活动密切联系的现象。不同的民族有不同的语言,不同的地域有不同的语言,同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响,而离开了人类社会,就无所谓语言可言了。总之,语言就是一种社会现象,同社会的关系非常密切,其产生、发展等都要受到社会的影响。 语言不是自然现象,一方面,语言同社会有着十分紧密的联系,社会的发展变化直接影响着语言的发展变化,也就是说,语言的发展变化是受制于社会的;另一方面,从语言的音义联系看语言不是自然现象,而是社会约定俗成的,没有必然的本质的联系,如果语言是自然现象,世界上的语言应该一样的,没有区别的,而实际上世界上的语言多种多样,而且许多语言中还有方言,这说明语言决不是自然现象。 3.语言是一种特殊的社会现象:语言不但是社会现象,而且是一种特殊的社会现象。语言作为社会现象的特殊性主要表现在,社会现象可分为经济基础和上层建筑两大类,任何一种社会现象,要么属于经济基础,要么属于上层建筑,而语言既不属于经济基础,也不属于上层建筑,这两者的变化都不会从本质上影响语言。所以,从本质上看,语言是人类共同的交际工具,不分阶级、阶层,一视同仁地为全社会的成员服务,没有阶级性,具有全民性特点。4.语言没有阶级性:可从这样几个方面思考,首先是看语言工具的服务对象,是为特定的阶级服务还是为大众服务。其次是结合语言自身的结构考察,观察语言在哪一方面体现了阶级性特征没有。再次是看语言产生的社会环境,语言产生于没有阶级的社会,社会上连阶级都没有,语言作为社会的产物更谈不上有阶级性了。 二、语言是人类最重要的交际工具 人类传递信息,进行交际和交流思想,除了使用语言外,还可以使用文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号以及身势、表情等,在一定场合使用,可以弥补语言的一些不足,但是这些交际工具使用范围有限,有的仅用于特定的范围,最重要的是,这些交际工具,都离不开语言,都是在语言的基础上产生的,是辅助语言进行交际的,没有语言,这些手段的存在没有任何意义。 一般掌握:语言和说话的关系 第二节语言是思维的工具 一、语言和思维的关系 语言不但是人类的交际工具,同时也是人类思维的工具,是认识成果的贮存所。思维过程离不开语言,需要借助语言来进行比较、分析、综合等一系列活动,需要借助语言来形成思想,利用语言把它储存在头脑中,再借助语言把思想表达出来,传达给听话人,同时使听话人产生思想。而且人类思维的成果-概念,还可以通过词语固定下来。总之,思维活动的过程不可能离开语言而单独进行,思维离不开语言,必须借助语言材料才能进行。语言也离不开思维,二者是互相依存,共同发展的。 二、思维能力是全人类共同的,语言是各民族不同 思维能力没有民族性,全人类都有,但不同民族的思维方式是不同的,有差别的,这从不同民族的语言的差异方面可以看出来。不同的语言之间很少有意义、功能、色彩等都完全对应等同的词语。第二章语言是符号系统 本章要注意语言是符号、语言符号的任意性特点、语言的层级体系三大要点。 主要名词概念:符号、语言符号、任意性、线条性、二层性、组合关系、聚合关系 第一节语言符号的性质和特点 一、什么是符号 1.符号的含义:符号就是由一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记,包括形式和意义两个方面,其作用是指称现实现象。2.符号的构成:符号是由形式和意义两个部分构成的结合体。形式就是符号外在的形状、结构,它是以某种物质的方式存在的,或者是声音,或者是线条,或者是色彩,等等。意义就是符号所代表的具体内容,任何一个符号,都有一定的意义,形式和意义在一定的符号系统中是密不可分的统一体,不能割裂二者之间的关系。形式和意义互相依存,谁也离不开谁。 二、语言符号及其特点 1.语言符号:从本质上看,语言也是一种符号,也有形式和意义两个方面,具有符号的一切特点。 语言符号又不同于一般符号。可从以下几个方面认识理解,首先,语言符号是声音和意义的结合体,是说的和听的;其次,一般符号的构成比较简单,而语言符号却是非常复杂的,可分不同的层级;再次,一般符号由于构造简单,因而只能表达有限的内容,而且这种内容是简单而固定的,语言符号则可以表达丰富多彩的意义;最后,语言符号具有以少驭多的生成机制,具有生成新的结构

认知语言学

认知语言学

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近年来,认知语言学已经成为国内外学者研究语言学的重点,认知语言学能很好地解释一些其他语言学理论无法解释的语言现象。认知语言学反映了人类认知过程。英语倒装句作为复杂的语言学现象引起很多语言学家的关注。各种不同的语法学派,语言学家和学者在不同的方面做出了很多贡献,但是由于这一复杂的句法特征,很多研究不能系统地解释倒装句。本文以象似性理论为认知原理,对英语倒装句中全部倒装,部分倒装及修辞性倒装进行解释,认为象似性尤其是接近象似性原则和顺序原则是形成倒装的主要原因。 关键字:象似性;倒装句;象似性原则

倒装句作为一种语法形式,是当今语言学研究的一个重要内容。传统理论对倒装的研究忽视了语言外部的因素,未重视认知对语序的制约作用,研究不够全面。 本文以认知理论为基础,对英语倒装句进行分析研究,以象似性原理为理论为依据,对英语中的不同倒装现象进行了分析和解释。在对句首倒装成分做出解释的基础上,本文对倒装句中动词全部活部分出现于主语之前的情况进行了解释,认为邻近象似性是英语倒装句中动词或全部或部分地随着突显成分提到主语之前的原因。 2 文献综述 国内外学者对认知语言学的研究做出了很多贡献,如王寅著的《认知语言学》,赵艳芳的《认知语言学概论》,Lackoff. G& M. Johnson’s MetaphorsWe Liveby等等。所以,以期刊、论文方式讨论倒装句的研究出了许多成果。传统研究主要是从修辞、句法、语用和语篇的角度进行的。徐盛桓,以语料统计为依据,研究英语倒装句,认为倒装是为实现句中各种成分的信息状态合理分布的调节装置,通过调节,使语句的成分有恰当的错位,达到全息的语用目的。余笑,从Verschuern提出的语用综观说出发,探讨英语和汉语中倒装语序的语用功能。发现英汉倒装语序均具有焦点分离突出和情景设定的功能。 而从认知语言学角度研究英语倒装句日益增多。杨壮春,用射体(trajectory)-界标(landmark)理论从认知的角度对倒装句的焦点突显功能作出解释,认为倒装句是该理论在语言学中的现实化,它把“射体-界标”转化为“界标-射体”结构形成句末焦点,以使人们注意的焦点落在新信息上,从而达到英语倒装句的凸显效果。更多的是以图形与背景理论为视角,对英语倒装句的焦点凸显功能进行重新阐释,认为英语倒装句符合图形-背景理论中的凸显原则,如王冰营,吕娜;刘先清;王海欧等。 用传统的修辞、句法、语用和语篇的角度进行的分析有其自身的缺陷,仅仅将倒装句认为是一种表示强调手段的句子。而用图形与背景理论分析可以解决为什么句子应该倒装即英语倒装句起始部分的问题,但是却解决不了为什么动词或者功能词应该放在主语前面这样的问题。象似性作为认知语言学中重要的概念,可以进一步研究英语倒装句中的问题。 3倒装句 英语句子的正常语序是主语位于谓语之前,然后是宾语或表语或其他句子成分。如果将全部谓语或谓语的一部分,或将宾语、表语、宾语补足语提到主语之前,就称为倒装语序(Inverted Order)。

中国语言学简史

中国语言学简史 中国语言学的发展路线,是由两个因素决定的:第一个因素是社会发展的历史;第二个因素是汉族语言文字本身的特点。 中国社会发展的历史,规定了中国古代语言学是为了实用的目的的。这与经济基础不是直接的关系,而是间接的关系。在漫长的封建社会过程中,“先王之道”被认为是巩固封建统治的法宝。即使是提倡变法的王安石,也主张“当法其意”(《上仁宗皇帝书》)。要法其意,也就必须通《经》。通《经》必先识字;识字只是手段,不是目的,但是非通过这个手段不能达到通《经》的目的,也就无从确知“先王之道”。张之洞说:“治经,贵通大义,然求通义理,必自音韵始;欲通音训,必自《说文》始。”这种指导思想贯穿着近两千年的中国语言学。 语言学(linguistics)的前身是语文学(philology)。语文学与语言学是有分别的。前者是文字或书面语言的研究,特别着重在文献资料的考证和故训的寻求,这种研究比较零碎,缺乏系统性(又叫文献学、语史学、传统语言学);后者的研究对象则是语言本身,研究的结果可以得出科学的、系统的、细致的、全面的语言理论。中国在“五四”以前所作的语言研究,大致是属于语文学范围的。 语文学在中国古代称为小学。小学这个名称最初跟小学校有关系。根据班固《汉书?艺文志》,我们知道古人八岁入小学,老师教他六书。识字是小学里的事,所以把识字的学问叫做小学。到了后来,小学的范围扩大了。清代的《四库全书总目提要》把小学类分为训诂之属、字书之属、韵书之属。训诂是研究字义的,字书是研究字形的,韵书是研究字音的。但是,研究字形的时候不能不讲字形与字音、字义的关系,三者的界限不是十分清楚的。但有一点可以肯定:小学是有关文字的学问。古人治小学不是以语言为对象,而是以文字为对象的。 第一章训诂为主的时期 第一节语言研究的萌芽 一、语文学的萌芽 语文学在先秦还没有产生。因为春秋战国时代去古未远,而且书籍很少,人们还不感觉到有语文学的需要,即还没有产生语言研究动因。但是零星的语文学知识已经萌芽。 首先是作者借字义的解释来阐明一种哲理或政治主张。孔子、孟子解释字义,主要是为了表达他们的政治思想,即并不是为了语文学的目的,但也反映了古代有关语言、字义研究的萌芽。 其次,作者也可以借字形的解释来阐明一种哲理或政治主张。《左传》和《韩非子》对“武”“厶”等字的解释虽然都被《说文》引用了,但也不一定就是正确地说明了古人造字的原意,很可能还是牵强附会。这也说明了,作者在讲字形的时候,也并不是为了语文学的目的,而是为了政治的目的。最合于语文学性质的,则是对古书字义的解释。 二、关于文字起源问题 春秋战国时期,我国许多哲学家、思想家对语言、文字问题进行了讨论,并提出了比较科学的认识。 关于文字的起源问题,最古的记载见于《易经?系辞传》:“包羲氏之王天下也,仰则观象于天,俯则观法于地,观鸟兽之文与地之宜,近取诸身,远取诸物,

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